
Class 







Book 



Copyright^ . 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT: 



LOCOMOTIVE TEXT 

FOR 

ENGINEERS 
and FIREMEN 



A COMPLETE TREATISE ON THE 
ENGINE, ELECTRIC HEAD- 
LIGHT and STANDARD 
CODE of TRAIN 
RULES 



PREPARED EXPRESSLY FOR THE 

NATIONAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOL 

* OF 

R AILR O ADIN G 
CHICAGO 



LIBRARY of OOT 
Twocopiei neftMnx 
MAY 16 1908 

3«wngm s.itiry 

Wants' '*'l 

^4 7* 3 r 

COPY 8. 

—..i. f . TW . - ■! A ST ■ ... 



COPYRIGHTED 1908 



i) 



PREFACE 



fflT 



HE Locomotive Text for Engineers and Firemen 
was prepared expressly for the National Cor- 
respondence School of Railroading, by 

thoroughly practical engineers, who have had years of 
training in road service. Each^ subject is explained in 
plain, comprehensive language and can be easily under- 
stood by the inexperienced as well as by the experienced 
enginemen. !I It is unlike all other books of this class, 
which contain a krge amount of matter pertaining to 
shop tools and shop practices, and are immaterial and of 
no value to the engineman. <I All mathematical prob- 
lems, mechanical science and calculations, shop tools 
and testing appliances, methods used in shop practice 
and the science of combustion have been omitted, with 
a view of instructing the engineman on matters which 
pertain to their particular vocation. A knowledge of 
higher mechanics and a scientific knowledge of com- 
bustion are valuable assets to an engineman, but they 
should not be confounded with practical locomotive 
running and management. 



CONTENTS I. 



CONTENTS. 



PART I. 

Locomotive Firing 1-23 

Oil-Burning Engine 14 

Locomotive Boiler 24-28 

Draft Appliances 29-32 

Steam Generation and Gauge Indications. . 32 

PART II. 

Locomotive Injectors 33-63 

Nathan "88" Monitor Injector — Lever Move- 
ment 37 

Nathan Monitor Injector — Screw Motion. . . 40 

Nathan Simplex Injector 43 

New Nathan Improved Non-Lifting Injector 

—Type "M" 46 

Ohio Injector 50 

Hancock Inspirator 52 

General Information Relating to Injectors. . 56 

Injector Defects 59 

Boiler Checks 64-67 

Siphon Tank Connection 68-69 

Steam-Heat Reducing Valves 70-78 

Mason Valve 70 

Taaf el Steam-Heat Reducing Valve 73 

Gold Pressure Regulator 75 

Defects of Reducing Valves 'j'j 

Safety- Valves 78-83 

Coale Safety- Valve and Muffler 78 

Crosby Safety- Valve 80 

Defects of Safety- Valves . 83 



CONTENTS II. 

Locomotive Chime Steam Whistle 84-85 

Locomotive Steam-Gauge 86-87 

Gauge-Cocks 88-90 

Water-Glass Gauge-Cocks 91-96 

Nathan Reflex Water-Gauge 94 

Blow-Off Valve 97-101 

Leach "A" and "E" Single and Double 
Sanders 102-1 it 

Leach "E" Double Sander 108 

Defects of the Air Sander no 

Gollmar Automatic Bell-Ringer 112-115 

Locomotive Lubricators 116-150 

Nathan Triple Sight-Feed Lubricators 116 

Bull's Eye Lubricators 125 

Nathan Triple Sight-Feed "Bull's Eye Lu 

bricator 125 

"Chicago" Three-Feed Lubricator, Bull's Eye 

Type 132 

Detroit No. 21 Locomotive Lubricator, Bull's 

Eye Type 136 

Hints on the Care of Lubricators 145 

Piston and Valve- Stem Packing 151-157 

United States Metallic Piston and Valve- 
Stem Packing 151 

Aurora L. & K. Metallic Piston and Valve- 
Stem Packing 154 

Lubrication 158-161 

Treatment of Hot Bearings 162-163 

Water Supply 164-166 

Priming and Foaming 165 

Wedges 167-168 

Rod Brasses 169-171 

Valve Motion 172-184 

Preventing Breakdowns and Accidents 185 

Breakdowns 186-237 



CONTENTS III. 

Leaks and Blows 238-240 

Eccentrics 241-242 

Eccentric Blades 243 

Locomotive Engineering 244-256 

Compound Locomotives 257-279 

Schenectady Two-Cylinder Type 259 

Brooks Tandem Type 266 

Vauclain Type Four-Cylinder 271 

Walschaert's Valve Gear 280-284 

Superheated Steam 285-288 

Pyle National Electric Headlight 289-334 

Turbine Engine 291 

Dynamo 304 

Main Wires and Their Connections 310 

Lamp 312 

Care of Dynamo and Engine 327 

Causes of and Remedies for Defects 328 

General Information 334 

PART III. 
Standard Code of Train Rules and Signals. .335-409 

General Rules 335 

Definitions 336 

Rules for Single Track 33^9 

Time-Tables 340 

Signal Rules 341 

Superiority of Trains 346 

Movement of Trains 346 

Rules for Movement by Train Orders, Single 

Track 351 

Forms of Train Orders, Single Track 358 

Train Rules and Train Orders for Double 

Track Which Differ from the Correspond- 

. ing Rules of the Rules for Single Track 

or Are Used Only for Double Track 368 

Time Tables (Double Track) 368 



CONTENTS IV. 

Signal Rules (Double Track) 369 

Superiority of Trains (Double Track) 369 

Movement of Trains (Double Track) 369 

Forms of Train Orders (Double Track) .... 372 
Rules Governing the Movement of Trains 
With the Current of Traffic by Means of 

Block Signals 381 

Rules Governing the Movement of Trains 
Against the Current of Traffic by Means 

of Block Signals 382 

Rules for Three and Four Tracks 382 

Diagrams of Hand and Lamp Signals 384 

Diagrams of Train Signals 388 

Diagrams of Fixed Signals 399 



LOCOMOTIVE TEXT 

PART I. 

LOCOMOTIVE FIRING. 



The locomotive fireman should study the funda- 
mental principles of firing, which will make him effi- 
cient and give him the necessary skill and knowledge 
to make the fuel which is applied to the furnace burn 
so evenly and hotly that it will evaporate into steam as 
much water as is possible in locomotive service. In 
other words, with skillful firing, the fuel consumed 
will perform its maximum duty. There are other 
qualifications which make the fireman a valuable man. 
The ability, however, to keep up steam to its maximum 
pressure is the most essential one, and is the first con- 
sideration for a man holding this position. 

While not absolutely essential, a knowledge of the 
science of combustion will often enable the fireman to 
overcome many difficulties in handling the various 
classes of fuel. The skillful fireman is one who has 
the ability and knowledge to fire a locomotive and 
to analyze by sight the various grades of coal; that 
is, his knowledge of firing will enable him to determine 
the best method of handling the particular grade of 
coal furnished the locomotive to the best advantage. 
The main object at all times is to maintain a maxi- 
mum pressure to meet the demands made upon the 
locomotive in the various classes of service. Though 
a man may become a skillful fireman without a sci- 
entific knowledge of combustion, there is one mental 



2 LOCOMOTIVE FIRING. 

qualification which he must possess in order to be suc- 
cessful; that is, good judgment, which is an aid to suc- 
cess in every calling, and especially in railroad work. 
In making a trip over a division a locomotive pulling 
a heavy train must meet so many varying conditions 
in the demand for steam that the successful fireman 
must exercise the best of judgment ; or, in other words, 
he must have his fire in the right condition to meet 
the demands made upon the locomotive. The prepara- 
tion of a fire before starting upon a trip is one of the 
most essential parts of his duties. In fact, the success 
of a trip depends largely upon the proper building up 
of the fire before leaving the terminal. Hence the ne- 
cessity of the fireman arriving at his engine in ample 
time to build the fire up gradually before the schedule 
or marked leaving time of the train. There is no im- 
perative rule that can be recommended, by reason of 
varying conditions under which the start is made, these 
conditions governing to a great extent the kind of fire 
necessary to be on the grates before starting. It de- 
pends wholly on whether or not the train will start out 
of the terminal upon an ascending, level or descending 
grade. In addition to building a fire up gradually, the 
fireman must see that the grates are loose, clinkers and 
ashes removed, and the ash pan clean before starting 
from the enginehouse track. The coal must be broken 
into suitable size before being placed in the fire-box, 
never losing sight of the rule that the coal for the next 
fire should be prepared immediately after putting in a 
fire. 

Placing Coal in the Fire-Box. The following illus- 
trations show the proper methods of applying the fuel 
to the fire-box, in addition to showing the disadvan- 
tages of incorrect methods of firing. Fig. 1 shows the 
long, narrow fire-box. The lines indicate how the coal 



LOCOMOTIVE FIRING. 




%g. I. 

should be placed. The deep line (1) shows the first 
shovelful of coal to be scattered evenly from the front 
part of the box back to one-third of the distance ; cen- 
ter line (2) shows the second shovelful, to be scattered 
from a point reached by the first shovelful back to 
cover two-thirds the length of the box. Lower line 
(3) shows the third shovelful scattered through the 
rear portion of the box. All should be placed evenly 
on one side of the fire-box, leaving on the opposite side 
a bright, incandescent fire, which consumes the gases 
liberated from the fresh fuel. After the fuel has be- 
come ignited and is burning bright, the next fire will 
be placed along the opposite side of the box in the 
same manner as previously described. 




Fig. 2 shows the short fire-box, firing with the one- 
shovel system. This figure indicates how the coal 



LOCOMOTIVE FIRING. 



should be applied at frequent intervals, one shovel at 
a time. This method is especially practical on small 
passenger, freight and yard engines. The same system 
may be adopted with the wide fire-box, using the neces- 
sary number of shovels of coal to cover the fire evenly 
on each side of the box alternately. The action of the 
draft on the fire usually carries enough fuel to the cen- 
ter of the grates so that it will not be necessary to ap- 
ply fresh fuel in the center of the fire-box except in the 
event of thin spots or holes being made through the 
center of the fire. 




PE RFECT. 



Figs. 3 and 4 show side and end views of the fire in 
a nearly perfect condition. It will be noted that the 



LOCOMOTIVE FIRING. 



fire is slightly heavier at the sides and ends of the fire- 
box than in the center, and it should be kept in this 
condition, as there is more air admitted at the sides 
and ends of the fire-box than through the center. The 
heavier fire protects the sheets from coming in contact 
with the cold air entering through the grates. 




S&-*- 




Figs. 5 and 6 show the result of heavy or uneven 
firing, or what is termed "banked." It will be seen in 
Fig. 5 that the fuel is banked against the flue sheet and 
also banked ahead of the back sheet. This method de- 
stroys a large portion of the heating surface, and, in 
addition to destroying the steaming qualifications of 
the engine, causes clinkers to form beneath the uncon- 
sumed fuel. Fig. 6 shows heavy and short firing, indi- 
cating that the fuel has not been thrown far enough 



6 LOCOMOTIVE FIRING. 

ahead to reach the front end of the fire-box, allowing 
the fire to become very thin next to the flue sheet. This 
permits cold air to enter the fire-box and flues, causing 
them to contract and leak. The heavy fire extending 
from the fire-door nearly to the front end of the box 
does not allow the necessary amount of air to pass 
through the fire and mix with the gases liberated from 
the fuel, and therefore results in improper combustion 
in all parts of the fire-box. The grates should be shaken 
often enough to keep them clear from clinkers and 
ashes. They should be moved with short, quick jerks. 
The slow moving of the grates to full length of the 
throw does not have the effect of breaking the clink- 
ers, that is accomplished by moving as above described. 
The purpose of the grates is to provide a means of 
breaking the clinkers, so that they will fall into the 
ash pan, leaving the grates open for the admission 
of air. 

There are circumstances and conditions in which 
the methods, as previously described, would not be a 
success by reason of the various classes of coal used 
and certain items requiring special attention and fir- 
ing. In a general way, however, the methods herein 
described are those of the most successful fireman. A 
man who does the work of firing a locomotive with 
skill and intelligence is one of the company's most 
valuable men, as he is in position to save more money 
through the economical use of fuel than all other em- 
ployes. 

DUTIES OF ENGINEMEN BEFORE LEAVING TERMINAL. 

Enginemen should arrive at the roundhouse in am- 
ple time to prepare the engine for the trip. After ascer- 
taining what engine is assigned to the run they should 
examine the bulletin board, on which is posted a list 



LOCOMOTIVE FIRING. 7 

of all important and special notices. Their first duty 
on arriving at the engine is to ascertain the amount of 
water in the boiler and the condition of the fire. There 
should not be less than two gauges of water in the 
boiler, and a light, even fire all over the grates, burn- 
ing bright and free from clinkers and ashes. There 
should be no_ leaks in the fire-box, the flues should be 
clean and dry, and none of them stopped up. 

After procuring the necessary tools and supplies, 
the next duty of the fireman is to prepare the fire for 
starting the engine on its run, see that the grates are 
in proper condition, examine the ash pan, and make 
sure that there is a full supply of water, coal and sand. 

Preparing the Fire. Always aim to keep a bright, 
level fire burning all over the grates by adding a small 
amount of coal at frequent intervals, evenly placed on 
all parts of the grates, and a good, solid fire burning in 
readiness to leave on the scheduled or marked leaving 
time of the train. 

If it is found that the fire has been banked by the 
roundhouse man, or that the fire is clinkered (Figs. 5 
and 6), the clinkers should be removed and live coals 
spread over the entire grate surface, and the grate bars 
should be loose and straight. 

Avoid Forcing Fire. At least thirty minutes should 
be taken before departure of train to build up the fire 
gradually, without forcing, which has a tendency to 
keep the fire clean, admitting enough air to the fire- 
box in proportion to the fuel applied, preventing black 
smoke and adding materially to keeping the fire free 
from clinkers and ashes. 

Condition of Grates. It is very important that the 
grates should be in proper condition, for upon this 
depends the successful firing of the engine. Grates in 
good condition will prevent live coals from filling the 



8 LOCOMOTIVE FIRING. 

ash pan and dropping upon the ties, bridges and other 
places, causing danger from fire. 

STARTING FROM TERMINAL. 

Before starting from the terminal the fireman 
should always compare the time of his watch with 
that of the engineman's; he should insist upon see- 
ing all orders and special instructions and should 
read all bulletins relating to train movements. It is 
part of the duty of all train and engine employes to 
understand and obey all bulletin instructions issued 
for their information and guidance. 

The engineman may overlook the execution of an 
order, which would not occur should the fireman re- 
mind him of such orders at the proper time. It is also 
necessary that he inform himself where an order is to 
become effective, in order that the fire may be handled 
accordingly. 

Firing After the Start. After the train has started 
the fuel should be applied frequently and in small 
quantities, evenly distributed over the fire, first on one 
side of the fire-box, then on the other. (Figs. 1 and 2.) 
Care should always be taken that the fire is kept at a 
bright, incandescent heat on one side of the fire-box, 
to consume the gases which are liberated from the 
fresh fuel placed on the opposite side. 

Firing on Each Side of Fire-Box Alternately. The 
practice of firing on each side of the fire-box alternately 
is an aid to combustion. Spreading fresh fuel over the 
entire fire reduces the temperature of the fire-box below 
ignition point. ' The heat of the fire is sufficient to lib- 
erate the gases from the fuel, but is of too low a tem- 
perature to cause combustion of the gases, allowing 
them to pass into the flues unconsumed and out of the 
smokestack in the form of black smoke. 



LOCOMOTIVE FIRING. 9 

In addition to this, the fuel is consumed more rap- 
idly along the sides and in the corners of the fire-box 
than in the center. "Short firing," an expression com- 
mon among firemen, means that the grates are not 
evenly covered the entire length of the fire-box. (Fig. 
6.) 

Before the Stop. When a stop is to be made, the 
last fire before reaching the stop should be put in far 
enough from the station to give time for the gases to 
burn out of the coal before the throttle is closed. 

If the injector is to be used after the throttle has 
been shut off there should be a good, bright fire in the 
fire-box, and it should be kept bright by adding small 
amounts of coal and using the blower lightly until the 
boiler is filled to the proper level, in order that a uni- 
form temperature and pressure may be maintained and 
danger of leaks in flues and fire-box lessened. 

Keep Down the Smoke. The prevention of smoke 
from a locomotive is of the utmost importance when 
passing through tunnels, under station sheds, and 
through municipalities where the "smoke nuisance" 
has caused legislation to be enacted providing for 
fines against railroads on this account. 

Building up the fire without the necessary care re- 
sults in the formation of clinkers and in time causes 
the boiler to leak. Forcing the fire with heavy charges 
of fresh fuel does not give the gases a chance to be 
consumed, reduces the temperature below ignition 
point, forms black smoke and wastes fuel. 

Bituminous Coal — How to Prepare. When bitu- 
minous coal is used, it should be broken into lumps 
three or four inches in diameter. The advantage 
gained is that a greater surface of the coal is exposed 
to the fire, allowing a more rapid liberation of the 
gases, which, combined with the gases admitted to the 



io LOCOMOTIVE FIRING. 

fire from the atmosphere, produces more rapid com- 
bustion. 

Using Fine or Slack Coal. Fine or slack coal should 
be wet down to prevent dust. In addition, moisture 
gives it a body, cementing the small particles together 
and retarding the liberation of the gases, which would 
be freed more rapidly than consumed if the slack coal 
were dry. 

Before the engine is shut off for a stop, the fire 
should be burned down to prevent the engine from 
"blowing off" or emitting black smoke. This prevents 
a waste of steam and consequently saves fuel. 

Before the train starts again the fire should be built 
up, in order to have a good, solid fire burning bright, 
in addition to having a full head of steam. 

On a Siding — Care of Fire and Water. When a 
train is delayed on a siding the fire should be kept 
bright and dampers down, in order to maintain an 
even temperature in the fire-box. The water should 
also be maintained at the proper level in the boiler. 

Advantage of Good Fire and Water Supply. The 
advantage of having a good fire and a good supply of 
water in the boiler before starting is that the train can 
be put under headway without reducing the steam pres- 
sure or forcing the fire. A good supply of water in the 
boiler will eliminate the necessity of putting the in- 
jector to work until the fire has been built up, thereby 
preventing a reduction of the fire-box temperature. 
The fireman should keep himself posted in regard to all 
trains he has to meet or pass, as it is required by the 
company, and with this knowledge the engine can be 
fired more economically and to better advantage. 

Other Duties of the Fireman. The fireman should 
learn as soon as possible to operate the injectors, lu- 
bricator, engineer's brake-valve, reverse lever and 



LOCOMOTIVE FIRING. n 

throttle. He should learn how to work the injectors 
in order to become competent to regulate the supply 
of water in the boiler. 

It is also important that the fireman learn to use 
the throttle, reverse lever and air-brake, as he is often 
requested by the engineman to move the engine. He 
should know and keep on the lookout for all fixed sig- 
nals, in addition to knowing how to read the signals 
accurately when given by the trainmen. He must 
watch the ash pan, grates, water level, and, in fact, 
make himself generally useful about the engine. 

The Handhold Plate and Hopper. If the handhold 
plate and hopper are not closed tightly it will interfere 
with the steaming of the engine, by destroying the 
smoke-box vacuum. In addition to this the smoke- 
box will become overheated through cinders in it 
catching fire, and when it cools off will warp and crack. 

Honeycombed Flues. If the flues should become 
honeycombed by clinkers from foreign matter in the 
fuel, when on the road, they should be cleaned off 
with a rod or ash hoe. Honeycombing or clinkering 
of the flues destroys the heating surface, thus causing 
poor steaming of the engine. 

Disconnected Grates While on the Road. If a sec- 
tion of the grates should become disconnected it will al- 
low holes to form in the fire, which would admit too 
much cold air. This reduces the temperature of the 
fire-box below ignition point, causing poor steaming 
of the engine. The ash pan also would become filled 
with, live coals, endangering all combustible materials 
over which the engine might pass. The grates should 
be connected at once, if possible, but if this cannot be 
done, they should be straightened, and the discon- 
nected portion used as a "dead grate." 

Clinkered or Dirty Fire. When the fire in an en- 



12 LOCOMOTIVE FIRING. 

gine becomes clinkered or dirty, it causes a poor steam- 
ing engine and leaky flues, and also prevents the neces- 
sary amount of air for combustion from entering the 
fire-box. In order to obtain best results, the grates 
should be kept loose and free from clinkers, the fire as 
light as practicable, the fuel to be applied often and 
in small quantities. A low, level fire (Fig. 3) allows 
the necessary amount of air to pass through the grates, 
giving more perfect combustion, not obtainable with 
a heavy fire, as shown in Figs. 5 and 6. 

Necessity of Admitting Air to the Fire. To con- 
sume one pound of coal about two hundred and sixty 
cubic feet, or thirty pounds of air, is required. This 
fact in itself shows the importance of keeping a low, 
level fire in order to admit the required amount of air 
for proper combustion. When dense volumes of black 
smoke are emitted from the stack of an engine it in- 
dicates either a dirty, clinkered fire, too heavy a fire, 
or improper firing, all of which cause improper com- 
bustion and waste of fuel. 

Arrival at Terminal. When the engine arrives at 
the terminal the enginemen should see that the fire is 
in good condition, that there is plenty of water in the 
boiler, the dampers down and, if at night, they should 
extinguish all signal lamps except those necessary for 
protection on the rear of the tender. 

Principles of Combustion. Combustion is the unit- 
ing of oxygen with combustible matter that has been 
heated to the point of ignition. Oxygen is obtained 
from the air, but is only one of the universal gases. 

LAWS OF COMBUSTION. 

A knowledge of the laws of combustion is valuable 
to a fireman because he can save both fuel and labor 
by putting this knowledge into use. The chief cause 



LOCOMOTIVE FIRING. 13 

of imperfect combustion is an insufficient amount of 
air being admitted through the fire, due to heavy firing 
and the accumulation of ashes and clinkers on the 
grates. The proper amount of air can be admitted 
to the fire by keeping the fire and ash pan clean and 
by correct regulation of the dampers. 

The fireman should keep a close watch on the fire 
for bright spots needing more coal. Under ordinary 
conditions from seven to ten pounds of water can be 
evaporated by one pound of coal, but this depends, to 
a great extent, upon the grade of fuel used. 

LARGE GRATE SURFACE. 

A large grate surface is advantageous, as it does 
not require so heavy a fire as when the grate surface 
is narrow, and greater economy is possible with an 
inferior grade of coal. Grates should be shaken only 
when necessary to keep the fire clean and in good con- 
dition. If the ash pan is allowed to become filled it 
shuts off the draft, warps and burns the ash pan, 
grates and grate bars. 

GRADES AND LOCATION. 

Every engineman should know the grades and the 
locations of all stations on the division on which he 
is employed. This knowledge will enable the fireman 
to prepare the fire accordingly, have it in good condi- 
tion at the foot of grades and at stops, and will pre- 
vent black smoke and "blowing off." When steam es- 
capes from the safety-valve it represents a waste of 
fuel and water. About fifteen pounds of coal is wasted 
each minute that the safety_valve is open. 



H LOCOMOTIVE FIRING. 



OIL-BURNING ENGINE. 

The Fire-Box. Oil-burning locomotives are com- 
ing into more general use each year, especially in sec- 
tions of the country where the use of oil for fuel is 
more economical than coal. The growing scarcity of 
the supply of coal in certain sections is also tending 
toward the increased use of oil for fuel. A coal-burn- 
ing engine can be converted into an oil-burner with 
only a few minor changes in the fire-box attachments. 

The oil is carried in a specially arranged compart- 
ment in the tank, usually above the water. The fire- 
box of the engine is arranged for the use of oil as fuel 
by placing a wall of fire-brick around the sides and 
front to protect the sheets. Brick which is affected 
by extreme heat is used in preference to heat-resist- 
ing brick, as the former will, after being superheated, 
bind better when cooled and so resist the hard usage 
resulting from the vibrations and shocks caused by the 
movements of the engine. 

The methods of using oil as fuel for a locomotive 
have been advancing steadily. First there was the 
Hearth Furnace, in which the liquid was thinly dis- 
tributed in pans and burned; next came the Gas Fur- 
nace, in which the oil was transformed into gas before 
being fed to the fire-box ; while with the present system 
an atomizer is used, by which the oil is sprayed into 
the fire-box. 

The use of oil as fuel is not new, dating back about 
fifty years, when it was used under the boilers in fac- 
tories in foreign countries. Petroleum, which is found 
in many parts of the United States, has been proved to 
be far superior to coal as fuel for locomotives. It is 
smokeless when handled properly, and is free from 



LOCOMOTIVE FIRING. 15 

dirt ; its supply for the furnace can be regulated almost 
in a moment; it does not require stoking; takes less 
room than coal for storage purposes, and gives off a 
hotter flame. No sparks are thrown out from the 
stack, which would cause danger of fire. The cost of 
handling oil as fuel is much less than that of coal. In- 
crease of wear over coal to the fire-box is the feature 
most objectionable to its use. 

Converting a Coal-Burner to an Oil-Burner. When 
a coal-burning engine is converted into an oil-burner 
the first change to be made is to remove the grates and 
their connections and change the ash pan. A cast- 
ing is placed inside the ash pan and fastened to the 
sides and near the top of the pan. This acts as a 
support for the brick work inside the fire-box. It is 
bored out so as to permit air in proper quantities to 
enter the fire-box for proper combustion. The brick 
arch is built as low as possible in order to protect the 
crown-sheet, crown-bolts and seams from the exces- 
sive heat of the oil flames. The oil-burner or atomizer 
is secured to the bottom of the mud ring central with 
the fire-box and at such an angle that when the spray- 
is emitted it will strike underneath the arch. (Figs. 
12 and 13.) 

The oil tank on the engine tender must be provided 
with a heater coil for the purpose of keeping the oil 
at the proper temperature in cold weather. Where 
heavy oil is used an air pressure of about five pounds 
is maintained upon it in order to keep up the proper 
flow, unless the oil is heated by the coil or the weather. 

Emergency Valve. To provide for emergencies, in 
case the engine becomes detached from the tender, the 
oil tank on the engine is provided with an automatic 
valve connected by means of a rope or chain with a 
spring key which passes through the upright rod of 



i6 



LOCOMOTIVE FIRING. 




FIG. 13 




Oil. CHAMBER 



•Steam Cha mber = 



FIG. 14. 



>. 



m* 



LOCOMOTIVE FIRING. 17 

the valve, and is so arranged that the rope will pull 
the key out of the rod, causing the valve to close and 
shut off the supply of oil. 

The Atomizer. The atomizer is the outlet for the 
oil supply through which the oil is fed to the fire-box. 
It is generally about twelve inches in length, and is in 
some cases divided into two compartments lengthwise 
(Fig. 14), while in others it has three (Fig. 15). The 
dividing partitions are parallel with the top and bot- 
tom of the atomizer. In the first style mentioned the 
oil passes through the upper compartment and steam 
through the lower, so as to heat the oil when passing 
to the outlet. In the other style the oil passes through 
the top compartment, steam through the center and 
air through the lower, uniting at the end of the nozzle 
so that the oil enters the fire-box as a spray mixed 
with air. In both cases the fire-box is .filled with flame. 

The atomizer with two compartments is attached 
to the bottom of the mud ring (Fig. 12). In the other 
style the burner is located in the upper part of the 
brick portion of the fire-box (Fig. 13). In deep fire- 
boxes the atomizer is placed at the back end, as in this 
type of fire-box the draft is strongest at that point. 
For the same reason it is placed at the front end in 
shallow fire-boxes. 

Firing Up. In firing up an oil-burning engine at 
the roundhouse a steam connection is made with the 
three-way cock on the smoke-box, acting as a blower 
and atomizer at the same time. A piece of oily, 
lighted waste is thrown into the fire-box ahead of the 
burner. After this the oil is started slightly, and the 
atomizer valve is opened enough to spray the oil that is 
flowing from the burner, which will ignite at once. 
The fire should be watched tclosely until steam begins 
to form in the boiler, when the supply of steam from 



18 LOCOMOTIVE FIRING. 

the roundhouse can be cut off. Care must be taken 
not to use too much oil, as this would cause an explo- 
sion. Care must also be taken that the fire does not 
go out, as the oil would run down into the pit and 
possibly take fire. 

To light the fire on an oil-burning engine after 
steam has been raised and the fire has gone out, open 
the front damper and put on the blower strong enough 
to cause the necessary draft; open the atomizer valve 
long enough to blow out all the condensed steam that 
may be in the steam -pipe or burner; then close the 
valve and place a piece of lighted waste in front of the 
burner and open the atomizer far enough to carry the 
sprayed oil to the lighted waste. After this open the 
regulator slowly; it must be known that the oil has 
taken fire, which can be determined by looking through 
the opening in the fire-box door. 

If the oil has not ignited it will run down into the 
pan, and when it finally becomes ignited an explosion 
will result, which would destroy the arch and damage 
the pipe connections. 

The hot bricks should not be depended upon to 
ignite the oil. If the oil were allowed to accumulate 
on them, an explosive gas would be generated, and 
when ignited would damage the walls and arch. 

When an oil-burning engine is to be fired up and 
steam cannot be had for the purpose, wood may be 
used until a pressure of from ten to fifteen pounds is 
obtained. Care must be taken not to damage the brick- 
work in the fire-box, and that the walls are kept in % 
good condition ; if broken parts of the arch or wall are 
permitted to drop on to the floor of the fire-box they 
may interfere with the proper working of the burner. 

Loss of steam pressure-in an oil-burning engine can 
be regained within a short time, at least in a decidedly 



LOCOMOTIVE FIRING. 19 

less time than with a coal-burner, but the operation is 
very injurious to the sheets of the fire-box. The rivets 
on the inside of the fire-box can in this way be easily 
burned off, as the fire caused by suddenly increasing 
the supply of oil is extremely hot. 

Burners. The burners should be so adjusted that 
the oil will strike about the center of the front wall 
of the fire-box. If the oil drops to the pan it will 
cause black smoke and a poor steaming engine. The 
black smoke would also indicate that more oil was 
being admitted to the fire-box than was being con- 
sumed. Sometimes the burner becomes stopped up 
with sand from the oil or small particles of waste 
drawn into the air inlet. The steam jet can be taken 
out of the majority of burners and cleaned, without 
disturbing the latter, and the trouble easily overcome. 
The blower should be used only strong enough to keep 
the stack clear of smoke, as too great a blast from it 
will create too strong a draft through the fire-box, re- 
ducing the temperature and causing a waste of fuel. 

STARTING ENGINE. 

The fireman should be at his post a reasonable 
time before the engine is started. The firing valve 
should be opened just enough to make sure that the 
action of the exhaust will not cause the fire to go out, 
but not enough to cause a large amount of smoke. 
When the engine is hooked up the valves controlling 
the admission of oil should be regulated accordingly. 
When starting it is good practice to use the blower 
about one-half turn, which will help consume the 
smoke between the exhausts and assist in keeping the 
boiler hot. Too much smoke produces a coating of 
soot in the flues and, as soot is a non-conductor of heat, 
it can readily be seen that the effect would be to de- 
stroy fhe steaming qualities of the engine. 



20 LOCOMOTIVE FIRING. 

The amount of smoke emitted from the stack can 
be taken as a guide as to the frequency with which the 
flues must be sanded. If there is much smoke after 
the engine is started and the engine is to be "worked 
hard" they should be sanded every ten or twelve miles. 
If the flues are kept clear, sanding is required only 
every thirty or fifty miles. 

Leaving Stations. When leaving a station the fire 
should be kept burning brightly and strong enough to 
keep it from being extinguished, as the strong draft at 
the start may put the fire out and chill the fire-box. 
As little steam as possible should be used in the atom- 
izer, but not reduced to an extent which would allow 
the fire to go out. The use of too much steam will 
reduce the temperature of the fire-box. 

A good illustration of the working of the atomizer 
is the common little atomizer used for spraying per- 
fume. Too much air forced through the pipe from 
the bulb will cause drops, instead of a spray, while 
insufficient air forced through will not spray the per- 
fume at all. 

If the fire back-lashes and smokes while the engine 
is working, the fireman should ease off on the fuel and 
use the dampers. When the engine is drifting the 
dampers should be closed to prevent cool air from 
being drawn into the fire-box. When the engine is 
steaming well and being worked at full capacity the 
fire should not make any more smoke than under or- 
dinary conditions. 

The engineer should inform the fireman of every 
contemplated move of the throttle previous to his mak- 
ing it, in order that he may operate the feed valve 
accordingly. 

Color of Fire. The fire should have a bright ruddy 
color, and is produced by feeding the proper amount of 



LOCOMOTIVE FIRING. 21 

oil, watching the regulating valve closely, and admit- 
ting the necessary amount of air. 

Water mixed with oil affects the flame and requires 
the admission of a greater amount of oil. 

Drafting. The drafting of oil-burning engines 
is the same as in coal-burning locomotives. The draft 
in the stack can be regulated so as to distribute it 
equally throughout the flues, by adjusting the draft 
appliances. It is good practice to fasten the draft ap- 
pliances rigidly after they are properly adjusted, so 
that they can be depended upon and the necessity of 
readjusting avoided. 

Engine Drifting. While the engine is drifting 
down long grades the fire should be kept burning 
lightly and not permitted to get too low. It should 
not be shut off altogether, for the reason that it would 
reduce the temperature in the fire-box and cause the 
flues to leak. While switching, the fire should be kept 
about the same as when running. 

Extinguishing the Fire. The fire should never be 
put out entirely unless the end of the run has been 
reached and the engine is to be given up, or when 
both enginemen are going to leave the engine, and then 
it should always be extinguished. To put out the fire, 
first close the stop-cock under the tank, allow the oil 
to be drawn from the pipe and burner, and then close 
the firing valve, atomizer and all dampers. 

Obstructions in the Oil Line. If there are obstruc- 
tions in the oil line, close the firing valve, open the 
cock between the heater line and the oil line, turning 
the cock on the boiler head to the heater line on, full. 
In this way all obstructions will be blown back into 
the tank. This may also be used as a substitute for 
heating the oil in the tank if the coil heater should 
fail to work properly. 



22 LOCOMOTIVE FIRING. 

FORCING THE FIRE. 

Forcing the fire on an oil-burning engine will cause 
the flues and fire-box to leak. An even temperature 
or as even as practicable should always be maintained. 
To obtain the best results, the feed valve should be 
opened sufficiently to make it certain that enough oil 
is being admitted to produce a good fire, but not 
enough to produce a volume of smoke. By watching 
the smoke emitted from the stack it can easily be seen 
whether combustion is good or not. 

The flues should be cleaned out after leaving ter- 
minals or after engine has been standing for some 
time. This is done by the frequent use of sand in 
small quantities. 

The frequent use of the blower is injurious to an 
oil-burning engine. It will draw cool air into the fire- 
box and flues and cause them to leak. It is most in- 
jurious to use the blower when a light smoke is being 
emitted from the stack, as such is, an indication of a 
light fire. 

SANDING THE FLUES, 

To sand an engine properly, use about one quart 
of sand. After the engine has been brought to a fair 
rate of speed, close all the dampers, put the reverse 
lever in almost full stroke and open the throttle wide, 
permitting the sand to be forced in a thin stream from 
the funnel which is provided for that purpose and 
placed in the opening of the fire-box door. It travels 
through the flues to the smoke-box, where it can be 
removed in the same manner as the cinders under the 
netting in the coal-burning engine. In this way all 
gummy deposits and soot can be removed from the 
flues. 



LOCOMOTIVE FIRING. 23 

AT THE OIL STATION. 

In approachig an oil station, care should be taken 
that no lamps or lights are burning on the tender 
when the stop is made. No lights should be brought 
closer than ten or fifteen feet from the supply tank, as 
the escaping gas from the oil is likely to cause an ex- 
plosion when it comes in contact with the flames of 
the lights. 

The depth of oil in the tank should be measured 
either by the gauge or by a stick or rod, just as water 
is measured at the manhole, but never with the aid of 
a light. Before entering a tank which has been used 
for oil, either to clean out or to make repairs, care 
should be taken that it is thoroughly cleansed. 

ADVANTAGES OF THE OIL-BURNING ENGINE. 

To sum up the advantages of the oil-burning en- 
gine over the engine using coal, the following points 
are self-evident: The use of oil as a fuel means 
economy in handling; a reduction in the waste of 
fuel , no cinders to be handled or to annoy passengers ; 
less waste of steam at safety-valve; less weight of 
fuel; economy of space for fuel; no sparks; no stok- 
ing; increased use of heat; engine can be turned and 
made ready for a new trip more quickly than with 
coal-burning fire-box ; fire can be lighted instantly and 
lost steam pressure recovered more quickly; can be 
regulated instantly; a freer steaming is assured, and a 
maximum tonnage can be handled to better advantage. 



24 



THE LOCOMOTIVE BOILER. 

The locomotive boiler is cylindrical in form and has 
a rectangular shaped fire-box at one end and a smoke- 
box at the other, with flues running through the cylin- 
drical part. As the heat from the fire-box passes 
through them, it affords the greatest possible heating 
surface in contact with the water. (Fig. 7.) 





Z&.7. 



The Locomotive Fire-Box. The modern fire-box 
of a locomotive is rectangular in shape (Fig. 9), and 
consists of side sheets (E), crown-sheet (U), back 
sheet (C) and flue sheet (Y). The fire-box is sub- 
jected to a crushing strain. The sheets of the fire-box 
are supported by means of stay-bolts (w), screwed 
through the outside and inside sheets and riveted. 



LOCOMOTIVE BOILER. 



25 




Hollow stay-bolts (Fig. 10) are used so that a broken 
bolt can be detected by escaping steam from the drill 
hole placed in the bolt for that purpose. The crown- 
sheet is supported by means of the crown-bars and 
radial stays. 

The inside and outside sheets of a fire-box are se- 
cured at the bottom by being riveted to a foundation 
ring, commonly called the mud ring (C, Fig. 8), show- 
ing the side view and end view. The attachments be- 
low the mud ring are the grates, ash pan, lever for 
shaking the grates and the dump drop grate. 

Crown-Bars. Crown-bars are those that support 
the crown-sheet (T. Fig. 8) . Radial stays are the sup- 
ports which extend from the crown-sheet through the 
outside shell of the boiler (R, Fig. 9). Sling stays are 



26 



LOCOMOTIVE BOILER. 




o o o o 

o o <t o o o o 

b o o < i o o o o 

oo 009 O O O O 

o o o o <i 0000 

00000 o 000 

0000* 0000 



FIG. 9. 




supports extending from the crown-bars to the outside 
shell of the boiler (Q, Fig. 8). 

The most objectionable feature to the use of crown- 
bars is the difficulty in keeping them clean, due to the 
fact that mud collects between the crown-sheet and 
bars, thus endangering the crown-sheet by overheat- 
ing. Radial stays are considered superior to crown- 
bars, as they can be more easily kept clean, more 
economically repaired and allow better circulation of 
the water. 



LOCOMOTIVE BOILER. 27 

Circulation of the Boiler. This is a term applied 
to the movement of water in the boiler when heated. 
The water, coming in contact with the heated fire-box 
and flues, is converted into steam, rises to the top and 
fresh water takes its place, thus causing the water to 
move or "circulate." To obtain the best results a 
boiler must have good circulation, and it must be clean 
and free from corrosion, scales, mud, etc. 

Wagon Top Boiler, Steam Dome, etc. A wagon 
top boiler is one that has a fire-box end much larger 
than the cylindrical part (Figs. 7 and 8), in order to 
provide more dry steam space. Steam domes insure 
dry steam as well as giving space for the throttle 
valve and throttle levers. 

Every locomotive has an extension called the 
smoke-box at the front end of the boiler (Fig. 8), in 
which are located the draft appliances, and where the 
cinders forced through the flues are collected after be- 
ing caught by the netting. 

BRICK ARCHFS. 

A locomotive fire-box is usually equipped with an 
arch, which insures more perfect combustion by re- 
taining the gases and thus allowing more time for their 
ignition. For the same reason it is an aid in prevent- 
ing black smoke. It also prevents the direct admission 
of cold air to the flues when the fire-door is open, or 
when there are thin spots in the fire. 

A hollow arch is one with passages which are open 
to the atmosphere by tubes passing through the sheets 
of the fire-box (Fig. 9). The advantage of the hollow 
arch is that it deflects air over the fire, mixing the oxy- 
gen with the gases, and thus aiding combustion. 

LEAKS IN THE FIRE-BOX. 

Sudden changes of temperature in the fire-box cause 
the flues to leak, due to the expansion and contraction 



28 LOCOMOTIVE BOILER. 

of the sheets. If a leak occurs in a tube or the fire- 
box, they fireman should keep a full head of steam, if 
possible, and a bright fire burning constantly. If the 
leaks are in the lower part of the side or end sheets, 
the fire should be banked at the place of leakage to 
prevent the water and steam from deadening too much 
of the fire. If a flue is leaking it should be plugged 
if possible. The flues and flue sheets are the parts of 
the boiler most sensitive to cold air. 

ABUSE OF BOILER. 

Chief among the abuses of the boiler are, allowing 
the pressure to drop back and then generating steam 
quickly by the use of the blower; overpumping the 
boiler, thereby reducing the steam pressure; improper 
firing, and sudden changes in the temperature of the 
fire-box. 

Sudden changes in fire-box temperature cause a 
sudden and continuous contraction and expansion of 
the flues and sheets. This contraction and expansion 
cause the sheets to crack and the flues to leak. 

CARE OF THE BOILER. 

Water should never be put on a sheet that has 
become red hot, as the water is likely to crack the 
sheet and cause it to be forced off the stay-bolts. If 
mud or scales accumulate on the crown-sheet, those 
parts of the sheet where the mud or scales are located 
will become overheated. 

The narrow space between the inside and outside 
of the fire-box is known as the leg of the boiler (n, Fig. 
9). The most important features insuring the safety 
of the boiler are frequent inspections, replacing the 
broken stay-bolts (Fig. 10), and washing out the boiler. 
The length of time that a boiler should be run before 
being washed out depends largely on the condition of 
the water and the class of service. The average miles 



DRAFT APPLIANCES. 



29 



run between washouts are usually from six hundred to 
one thousand. 




The boiler check is usually placed near the front 
end of the boiler to introduce the water at as great a 
distance as possible from the fire-box. The advantage 
thus gained is that it permits the water to become 
heated before coming in contact with the fire-box, and 
also tends to bring about a better circulation of the 
boiler. 

DRAFT APPLIANCES. 

The draft appliances of a locomotive (Fig. 11) in- 
clude diaphragm (1), petticoat-pipe (2), sleeve (3), net- 
ting (4), exhaust nozzle (5) and exhaust (6). 

The diaphragm is a sheet of steel fastened at an 
angle just above the top of the boiler tubes, which 
deflects the smoke and cinders towards the bottom of 
the smoke-box. Attached to the stationary portion of 
the diaphragm is another section, hinged in modern 



3Q 



DRAFT APPLIANCES. 




FIG. 11. 



locomotives, which when raised or lowered governs 
the draft through the tubes. Raising the diaphragm 
decreases the draft through the lower and increases the 
draft through the upper flues. 

The petticoat-pipe (2), which is cylindrical in shape, 
is set directly over the exhaust nozzle (5), and has 
a second tube of larger diameter, called a sleeve 
(3), above, so as to telescope with it. They are in 
direct line with the stack and act as a guide for the 
steam from the exhaust nozzle passing out of the stack. 

Raising the sleeve and lowering the petticoat-pipe 
decreases the draft on the fire ; raising the petticoat- 
pipe and lowering the sleeve increases the draft. (Fig. 
11). If a fire burns more intensely at the front end 
of the fire-box it indicates that the draft is greater 
through the lower flues ; if the fire burns stronger 'at 
the fire-box door it shows that the draft is greater 
through the upper flues. 

The netting (4, Fig. 11) is a steel screen fastened to 
the smoke-box to prevent large cinders from passing 
out of the stack. The smoke, gases and small cinders 
passing from the flues are deflected downward by the 
diaphragm, then pass through the netting, which pre- 
vents the large cinders from escaping and deposits 



DRAFT APPLIANCES. 31 

them in the bottom of the smoke-box, (Fig. 7). The 
cinders are finally forced out of the stack, together 
with the smoke and gases, after they have been broken 
into small pieces against the netting. 

The exhaust from the cylinders converge in the 
nozzle stand 6, and to the top of this the nozzle is 
attached by means of bolts or set-screws. The nozzle 
guides the exhaust steam into the petticoat-pipe, sleeve 
and stack. The smaller the size of the nozzle the 
sharper the draft on the fire ; the larger the nozzle the 
less keen will be the draft. 

Adjusting the Petticoat-Pipe. By increasing the 
space between the nozzle and the petticoat-pipe and 
between the base of the stack and the sleeve, more 
space is provided for the gases to pass from the front 
end. and by decreasing the space the draft decreases 
accordingly. When the exhaust is strongest on one 
side of the stack, it indicates that the exhaust stand, 
petticoat-pipe, sleeve or stack is out of line. (Fig. 8.) 

"Red Fire." If, upon opening the fire-door, the 
fireman discovers what is commonly known as a "red 
fire," it indicates that the grates are probably clogged 
with clinkers and ashes. Another indication of the 
clogging of the grates is the pull on the fire-door when 
opened. In addition to the clogging of the grates and 
derangement of the draft appliances, leaking steam 
pipes or clogged netting will cause the fire to look red. 
A leaky steam-pipe or a leaky exhaust stand gasket 
will cause the engine to steam badly. The escaping 
steam entering the smoke-box occupies the space that 
should be supplied with air from the fire-box. 

The Blower. The blower when opened allows a 
jet of steam to pass to the front end and out of the 
stack, creating a partial vacuum in the smoke-box and 
causing a draft on the fire. Care should be taken not to 



32 STEAM GENERATION. 

give the fire-door too great an opening when using the 
blower whether the engine is drifting or standing, as 
this allows cold air to strike the flues and side sheets, 
causing them to leak. 

HOW THE DRAFT IS CREATED. 

Exhaust steam creates a draft on the fire by form- 
ing a partial vacuum in the smoke-box. The air from 
the fire-box is drawn through the flues, creating a draft 
on the fire, and in turn fresh air is forced by atmos- 
pheric pressure through the grates to supply the fire. 

The drumming noise heard when the engine is shut 
off is caused by a succession of explosions of gases in 
the fire-box and indicates a clean fire. While this 
causes a noise that is very annoying it does not sig- 
nify danger, and can be avoided by closing the dam- 
pers or opening the fire-door. 

STEAM=GAUGE INDICATIONS. 

The pressure indicated by the steam-gauge means 
the pounds per square inch above the atmospheric 
pressure. By atmospheric pressure is meant the 
weight of the atmosphere which surrounds the earth. 
Atmospheric pressure is figured at 14 7/10 pounds per 
square inch at sea level. 

STEAM GENERATION. 

Steam is the source of power of the locomotive. It 
is an invisible gas generated by heating water above 
the boiling point. The water coming in contact with 
the heated sheets of the boiler rises in the form of 
bubbles to the top, where they explode in the form of 
steam. 

Steam Temperature. Water boils at 212° Fahren- 
heit, when subjected to atmospheric pressure only. 
When the pressure of the steam is 200 pounds the 
temperature is 380° Fahrenheit. 



33 



THE ENGINE AND ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 

PART It. 

LOCOMOTIVE INJECTORS. 



"As with all new inventions and improvements, great 
difficulty was experienced in obtaining a fair trial of the 
merits of the injector. In many cases the exaggerated 
claims of its advocates placed as many obstacles in its 
way as the severe and condemnatory criticism of its 
enemies. The advantages, however, of the new method 
of boiler feeding, the simplicity and efficiency of the ap- 
paratus, and the comparatively small cost of installation 
and maintenance, were soon appreciated by steam users, 
and to-day the injector is among the most popular boiler 
feeding appliances in use. It is, without doubt, better 
than all other devices heretofore used for feeding boilers, 
and is the best that can be used, for the reason that it 
is the simplest and most ingenious. Hundreds of thou- 
sands of injectors are in use to-day, and there is hardly 
a locomotive running in any part of the world which is 
not provided with at least one injector. Many steam 
vessels and stationary plants are equipped with them as 
boiler feeders. It is therefore of the utmost importance 
that every fireman and engineman should be thoroughly 
familiar with both the details of their construction and 
their use. 

What Is an Injector? An injector is an instrument 
or device in which a jet of steam imparts its velocity to 
water, and forces it into the boiler against the weight of 
the water and that of the steam pressure contained in 
the boiler. 



34 LOCOMOTIVE INJECTORS. 

The principal parts are very similar in all classes of 
injectors. They consist of a steam nozzle, through 
which the operating steam from the boiler enters the in- 
jector; a combining and condensing nozzle, in which the 
steam and feed-water meet, and in which the steam con- 
denses and transmits its force to the water, and a deliv- 
ery nozzle, in which the maximum velocity of the com- 
bined mixture of steam and water is attained and subse- 
quently reduced by means of the expanding curves or 
tapers and the increasing cross section, to the velocity 
and pressure in the boiler pipe. 

The three parts mentioned are to be found in every 
injector. 

In starting the injector, more water as a rule enters 
the apparatus than the injector is capable of delivering 
against the back pressure of the boiler. If there were 
no communication with the atmosphere the injector 
would refuse to work and the steam would blow back 
into the tank from which the water is taken, as this chan- 
nel offers the least resistance. 

The Principle and Action of an Injector. The ac- 
tion and principle of an injector is based on the fact 
that the velocity of steam which escapes from the boiler 
at a given pressure is much greater than that of water 
under the same conditions. 

It is very difficult, and, in fact, almost impossible to 
properly explain the action of the injector without enter- 
ing into mathematical demonstration and deductions, 
which would lead too far for instruction purposes. It 
will be necessary therefore to confine our instructions to 
the results of such mathematical deductions. The most 
simple method of considering the action of the injector 
is to view it from purely a mechanical standpoint as an 
apparatus in which the force of a jet of steam is im- 
parted to a more slowly moving body of water, resulting 



LOCOMOTIVE INJECTORS. 35 

in a final velocity sufficient to overcome the pressure in 
the boiler. 

We will consider, for example, a boiler containing 
steam at 120 pounds pressure. According to the laws 
governing the flow of steam through properly built chan- 
nels, the steam discharging through the minimum diam- 
eter of the steam nozzle into the atmosphere, or steam 
of a low pressure, will reach a velocity of about 1,400 
feet per second, but when it discharges into a combining 
tube, in which there is an average of a 20-inch vacuum 
(which is not unusual) the velocity will be about 3,500 
feet per second. 

In supplying water to the injector at the rate of about 
13 pounds to 1 pound of steam, which is considered a fair 
performance at the pressure stated, the water will re- 
ceive the impulse of the moving steam, condensing the 
latter, and the two fluids will move through the delivery 
tube with a final velocity which is very much less than 
the original velocity of the steam jet. This final velocity , 
under the conditions named, is about 170 feet per second, 
and in order that the injector should work properly this 
velocity must be greater than that with which the water in 
the boiler would issue from the delivery nozzle under a 
pressure of 120 pounds per square inch. This velocity is 
equal to that due to the main body of steam, correspond- 
ing to 120 pounds pressure or about 133 feet per second. 

It is apparent therefore that there is a considerable 
margin of available energy in favor of the moving mix- 
ture of steam and water, as against the stationary resist- 
ance under the same pressure of steam and water in the 
boiler. An injector must have the proportions of steam, 
water and delivery areas so designed that the velocity of 
the moving mixture of steam and water will be greater 
than the velocity at which a jet of water would flow from 
the boiler under a corresponding pressure. If the amount 



36 LOCOMOTIVE INJECTORS. 

of water supplied is too great, the steam will not have 
power to give the water the required surplus of velocity. 
Also if there is an insufficient supply, the volume of steam 
will not be sufficiently reduced by condensation to pass 
through the nozzles, and in neither case will the injector 
properly perform its functions."* 

In connection with the principle and action of the 
injector there are several conditions to be considered. 
One of the conditions is that the injector refuses to lift 
promptly or lift all the water. This may be caused by 
leaky joints in the suction-pipe, by improperly packed 
water valve-stem, by dirty or clogged strainers, clogging 
of the lifting steam passages in the injector, or a hot suc- 
tion-pipe, which is one of the principal causes of injectors 
failing to start. Particular attention should be given to 
the strainer. It should be taken out, examined, and 
thoroughly cleaned before each trip. The old adage is 
especially applicable to the care of the strainer, as "An 
ounce of prevention is preferable to a pound of cure." 

The care and attention given the strainer in many 
instances prevents a great deal of annoyance, expense 
and engine failures. When the injector lifts the water 
but refuses to force it into the boiler, or forces only part 
of the supply into the boiler and part through the over- 
flow, it is usually caused by an insufficient water supply, 
as a result of improper size of the suction-pipe, hose or 
tank valve opening, or water-valve not being given the 
proper opening. This defect in the opening of the suc- 
tion-pipe, hose or tank valve especially affects injectors on 
high pressure boilers. In addition to the defects previ- 
ously described, in many instances the opening at the 
boiler check is insufficient for free admission of the water 
to the boiler. The pipes of an injector should never be 
smaller than the sizes called for by the injector connec- 
tions, and more especially the suction-pipe and opening 
of the tank valve. 
*G. A. Bischoff. 



LOCOMOTIVE INJECTORS. 



37 



NATHAN "88" MONITOR INJECTOR 
LEVER MOVEMENT. 





List of 


Parts. 


1. 


Body (back part) 


18. 


W T ater- Valve Handle 


2. 


Body (front part) 


19. 


Water- Valve Top Nut 


3- 


Body Screw 


20. 


Lifting Nozzle 


4- 


Steam Bonnet and 


21. 


Steam Nozzle 




Nut 


22. 


Intermediate Nozzle 


5- 


Lever Handle 


23- 


Condensing Nozzle 


6. 


Guide-Bar 


24. 


Delivery Nozzle 


7- 


Guide Sleeve 


25- 


Overflow Nozzle 


8. 


Center Bolt 


26. 


Heater Cock Check 


9- 


Fulcrum Bolt 


2 7 . 


Heater Cock Bonnet 


IO. 


Fulcrum Bar 




and Nut 


ii. 


Clamp Bolt and Bush- 


28. 


Heater Cock Spindle 




ing 


29. 


Heater Cock Handle 


12. 


Friction Clamp 


30. 


Heater Cock Top Nut 


13- 


Steam Valve Spindle 


31. 


Line Check Casing. 


H- 


Lifting Valve 


32. 


Line Check-Valve 


15- 


Steam Valve 


33- 


Stop Ring 


16. 


Water-Valve 


34- 


Coupling Nut 


i7- 


Water- Valve Bonnet 


35- 


Tailpiece 






f36- 


Steam Spindle 






37- 


Yoke 






38. 


Yoke Gland 


Interchangeable Parts of 


39- 


Yoke Packing Nut 


the 


' Screw Motion In- < 


40. 


Yoke Lock-Nut 


jector: 


41. 


Steam Valve Handle 






42. 


Steam Valve Rubber 
Handle 






.43- 


Water-Chamber 




Operation. To operate 


the 


n jector pull out lever 


5 (Plate 1) for a short dist 


ance 


; this unseats valve 14 


and allows a jet of steam to 


pass 


through lifting nozzle 



38 



LOCOMOTIVE INJECTORS. 



A«3An3Q 




PLATE 1. 
NATHAN "88" MONITOR INJECTOR 



LOCOMOTIVE INJECTORS. 39 

20 and intermediate nozzle 22; thence by heater cock 
check-valve 26, through the spills D to overflow noz- 
zle 25, thus creating a vacuum in the body of the in- 
jector, and over the water in feed pipe, causing the 
water to be forced to the body of the injector by the 
aid of atmospheric pressure; then through nozzle 22, 
heater valve 26 to passage D and to the ground. When 
the water runs from overflow 25 steadily, pull back lever 
5; this unseats steam valve 15 and allows the steam to 
pass through steam nozzle 21 and combine with the 
water in intermediate nozzle 22, which is then forced 
through condensing nozzle 23 and delivery nozzle 24 
past line check-valve 32 ; then through the delivery pipe, 
unseating the boiler check and passing into the boiler. 

The steam supply should not be increased after the 
water has ceased to run at the overflow. The regula- 
tion of the supply should be governed by water-valve 
handle 18. 

To convert into a heater, close heater cock check 
handle 29 and pull out lever 5 to its extreme travel, clos- 
ing water-valve 16 to regulate the amount of steam 
needed in the feed pipe. 



40 



LOCOMOTIVE INJECTORS. 



NATHAN MONITOR INJECTOR 
SCREW MOTION. 





List of 


Parts 




IOI. 


Body (back part) 


125. 


Steam Nozzle 


102. 


Body (front part) 


126. 


Intermediate Nozzle 


IO3. 


Body Screw 


127. 


Condensing Nozzle 


IO4. 


Yoke 


128. 


Delivery Nozzle 


IO5. 


Yoke Gland. 


130. 


Line Check Casing 


106. 


Yoke Packing Nut 


131- 


Line Check- Valve 


IO7. 


Yoke Lock-Nut 


132. 


Stop Ring 


108. 


Steam Valve Disk 


J 33- 


Overflow Nozzle 




and Nut 


134. 


Heater Cock Check 


IO9. 


Steam Valve Spindle 


135- 


Heater Cock Bonnet 


I IO. 


Steam Valve Handle 




and Nut 


III. 


Steam Valve Rubber 


136. 


Heater Cock Spindle 




Handle 


137- 


Heater Cock T Han- 


112. 


Steam Valve Top 




dle 




Nut 


138. 


Coupling Nut (steam 


113- 


Jet Valve Disk and 




end) 




Nut 


138-a 


.. Tailpiece (steam 


II4. 


Jet Valve Spindle 




end) 


115. 


Jet Valve Bonnet and 


139. 


Coupling Nut (water 




Nut 




end) 


Il6. 


Jet Valve Gland 


139-a 


. Tailpiece (water 


117. 


Jet Valve Lever 




end) 




Handle 


140. 


Coupling Nut (deliv- 


Il8. 


Jet Valve Top Nut 




ery end) 


1 1 8-; 


1. Jet Tube 


1 40- a 


. Tailpiece (delivery 


118-b. Lifting Nozzle 




end) 


119. 


Water- Valve 


141. 


Water-Chamber 


120. 


Water- Valve Bonnet 


142. 


Vacuum Chamber 


123. 


Water- Valve Handle 






Operation. The Monitor Injector, Screw Motion, 


(Plate 2), is operated in the 


: following manner: 



LOCOMOTIVE INJECTORS. 



4i 



AH3AH3q, 




mma 



iWMJ/WSJB. 



PLATE 2. 
NATHAN MONITOR "XX" INJECTOR 



42 LOCOMOTIVE INJECTORS. 

Water-valve 119 is opened by means of lever 123, 
which admits water into chamber 141 ; valve 113 is then 
opened by means of lever 117, which admits steam into 
tube 118-a, escaping into the overflow, thus creating a 
partial vacuum in chamber 141, by means of which com- 
munication, is formed with chamber 142. With valve 134 
open, water is forced from tank into chamber 141, 
through nozzle 126, and escapes at the overflow. When 
water appears at the overflow, steam valve 108 is opened 
by means of steam valve handle no, admitting steam to 
nozzle 125, combining with the water in the intermediate 
nozzle 126 and is condensed and forced through the con- 
densing nozzle 127; thence through delivery nozzle 128, 
by line check-valve 131, through delivery pipe 140-a, un- 
seating boiler check and supplying the boiler. After the 
injector is working, valve 113 is again closed to prevent 
steam from escaping at the overflow. 



LOCOMOTIVE INJECTORS. 



43 



NATHAN SIMPLEX INJECTOR. 





Lw* of 


Parts. 


I. 


Body 


24-a 


. Combining Nozzle 


2. 


Steam Bonnet 


25- 


Delivery Nozzle 


3- 


Steam Packing Nut 


26. 


Heater Cock Check 


4- 


Lever. 


27. 


Guide for Heater 


5- 


Lever Handle 




Cock Check 


6. 


Guide for Steam 


28. 


Nut for Cam Casing 




Spindle 


29. 


Cam Casing 


7- 


Guide Pin 


30- 


Cam 


8. 


Lever Pin 


3*-' 


Cam Lever 


9- 


Fulcrum Bar 


32. 


Nozzle Holder 


IO. 


Fulcrum Pin 


33- 


Line Check- Valve 


ii. 


Steam Spindle 


34- 


Overflow Nozzle 


12. 


Lock-Nut 


35- 


Emergency Valve 


13- 


Water-Valve 


36. 


Packing Nut for 


14- 


Water-Valve Bonnet 




Emergency Valve 


15- 


Water- Valve Nut 


37- 


Coupling Nut 


16. 


Water-Valve Handle 


37-z 


. Ball Joint 


i7- 


Water- Valve Top Nut 


37-t 


). Brazing Ring- 


18. 


Inlet Valve Cap 


39- 


Overflow Coupling 


19. 


Inlet Valve 




Nut 


20. 


Inlet Valve-Seat 


40. 


Overflow Tailpiece 


21. 


Steam Nozzle 


46. 


Guide for Heater 


22. 


Lifting Steam Nozzle 




Cock 


23. 


Intermediate Nozzle 


47- 


Heater Cock Spindle 


24. 


Combining Nozzle 


48. 


Heater Cock Handle 




Description. The Simplex 


injector is what is 


termed an automatic instrument 


and will restart after 



being interrupted from any cause, such as water surging 
in the tank when the supply is low, or a bad kink in the 
hose when the engine goes around a sharp curve, shut- 
ting off a part of the water supply. It is also self- 



44 



LOCOMOTIVE INJECTORS. 



Plate 3 

NATHAN SIMPLEX INJECTOR 




LOCOMOTIVE INJECTORS. 45 

regulating, controlling the water without waste at the 
overflow, with a varying pressure of steam of from 50 
to 200 pounds without any regulating on the part of the 
engineman. Whenever the steam pressure is below 50 
pounds the water must be regulated by the water-valve. 
It will start readily, even with a hot feed pipe. 

This injector is provided with an extra waterway 
which is controlled by an inlet valve 19 (Plate 3), which 
valve serves to increase the injector's capacity at steam 
pressure above 150 pounds. Should valve 19 leak or 
fail to seat, the emergency valve 35 may be turned one- 
half turn, and this extra waterway shut off; the in- 
jector will then start and work as an ordinary injector. 
The range of this injector is nearly 60 per cent, and is 
obtained by regulating the water-valve 13. The steam 
valve should be fully open at all times. The thumb- 
screw on the lever guide is to keep lever 4 in a slightly 
open position whenever the injector is used as a heater, 
so that the entire pressure may not be exerted on the 
hose. 

Manipulation.' To use the injector as a heater, close 
the heater cock check and draw out the starting valve a 
sufficient distance to permit the necessary amount of steam 
to flow back into the tank and to the frost cock at the 
delivery pipe. When starting the injector on high lifts 
and when lifting hot feed-water, pull out the starting 
lever slowly. To start the injector under ordinary con- 
ditions, pull the lever a short distance until the water is 
freely flowing from the overflow, and then pull lever 4 
the full length of its stroke. To stop the injector, push 
in lever 4 the full length of its stroke. 

DEFECTS. 
Should the injector get hot when not in use it is 
evident that the steam valve leaks and should be 



4<> 



LOCOMOTIVE INJECTORS. 



ground in. If there is any difficulty in starting the in- 
jector, it may be the inlet valve that is unseated. If 
this is found to be the trouble turn emergency valve 35 
a half turn, closing passage P and continue the use of 
the injector until valve 19 can be repaired. 



NEW NATHAN IMPROVED NON-LIFT- 
ING INJECTOR— TYPE "M" 





List of 


Parts. 


I. 


Body 


20. 


Line Check Nut 


2. 


Yoke 


21. 


Line Check Nipple 


3- 


Yoke Gland 


22. 


Line Check 


4- 


Yoke Packing Nut 


23. 


Line Check- Valve 


5- 


Yoke Lock-Nut 


24. 


Line Check Cap 


6. 


Steam Valve Spindle 


25. 


Drain Plug 


7. 


Steam Valve Lock- 


26. 


Heater Cock Check 




Nut 


27. 


Heater Cock Bonnet 


8. 


Steam Valve and 




and Nut 




Priming Nozzle 


28. 


Heater Cock Spindle 


9- 


Universal Joint 


29. 


Heater Cock Handle 


10. 


Water-Valve 


30- 


Overflow Body 


11. 


Water- Valve Bonnet 


31. 


Air-Chamber 




and Nut 


32. 


Air-Chamber Nipple 


16. 


Steam Nozzle 


33- 


Coupling Nut 


17. 


Intermediate Nozzle 


34- 


Tailpiece 


18. 


Condensing Nozzle 


35- 


Overflow Nut 


19- 


Delivery Nozzle 


36. 


Upper Overflow Nut 



Description. Plate 4 shows a cross sectional view of 
an improved form of non-lifting injector, which is 
known as the Type "M." It is provided with water 
regulating valve 10, and it also has priming nozzle and 
steam valve 8 within the body of the injector. The in- 
jector overflow valve is not contained within the body, 
of the injector in this type of non-lifting injector, but is 



LOCOMOTIVE INJECTORS. 



47 



Plate 4 

NATHAN NON-LIFTING INJECTORS— TYPE "M 





48 LOCOMOTIVE INJECTORS. 

usually placed in a convenient position inside the engine 
cab, and about six inches above the highest water level 
in the tank, and is connected with the elbow at the back 
of the injector by means of a pipe, which must be of the 
size called for by the overflow connection. 

The overflow connections on the body and the air- 
chamber are interchangeable, so that the injector can be 
used on either the right or left side. The object of plac- 
ing the overflow pipe in the cab is to have it under the 
direct observation of the engineman, who is then able to 
see whether the injector is working properly. By plac- 
ing the overflow valve above the highest water level in 
the tank, the loss of water is prevented when the injector 
is not in service and the overflow need not be closed 
unless the injector is used as a heater. 

The claims of this injector for superiority over others 
may be briefly summarized as follows : 

i. It will start readily at all times and under all cir- 
cumstances. Hot delivery pipe, leaks and defective 
boiler checks, which cannot always be avoided, will not 
affect its prompt starting, as they do that of lifting in- 
jectors, or non-lifting injectors which have not the new 
improvements. 

2. It will not lose more water in starting than any 
lifting injector, as the overflow is in sight of the en- 
gineman. 

3. When once regulated to the requirement of the 
service it is a perfect one-motion machine. It is started 
by simply turning on the steam. 

4. The nozzles of this injector will not corrode, as 
the body is comparatively cool, being always charged 
with water. 

5. Steam from a leaky steam valve will not show 
at the overflow, and obscure the view through the cab 
window. 



LOCOMOTIVE INJECTORS. 49 

The injector can be regulated to a 50% range so that 
it is suitable for heavy as well as light service. 

Operation. When first starting this injector, the 
tank valve should be wide open. Water-valve 10 should 
then be opened by means of the handle in the cab, after 
which the primer 8 should be opened a quarter turn. 
This will raise the steam valve off its seat, and allow 
steam to pass into the priming nozzle through openings 
shown in Plate 4, and down through the nozzles of the 
primer valve. The steam as it issues from the priming 
nozzle is condensed by the incoming water and imparts 
to the latter sufficient velocity to carry the water and con- 
densed steam through nozzles 17 and 18, and out 
through the overflow pipe, and out of the over- 
flow in the cab. As soon as the water ap- 
pears at the overflow, the primer valve should be 
given a greater opening, which will have the effect of 
unseating the steam valve 8, allowing steam to pass out 
through the larger opening made, and down through the 
steam nozzle 16. This will give the water a still greater 
velocity, enabling it to raise check-valve 23, and pass 
into the boiler. The quantity of the water supply should 
be regulated by water-valve 10. 

To stop the injector, the steam valve should be closed 
and the water-valve left open ready for the next starting. 
This will keep the injector body full of water and pre- 
vent scales from accumulating. 

To use the injector as a heater, heater cock check 26 
should be closed, after which the steam valve should be 
opened very slightly. In very cold weather the drain 
plug 25 may be replaced by a drain cock, for the purpose 
of keeping the injector and overflow pipe free from 
water when not in service, in which event the tank valve 
must be kept closed. 



50 LOCOMOTIVE INJECTORS. 

OHIO INJECTOR. 

List of Parts. Plate 5 shows a sectional view of the 
Ohio injector, which consists of the following parts: 



I. 


Body (back part) 


8. 


Combining Tube 


2. 


Body (front part) 


9- 


Delivery Tube 


3- 


Delivery End Connec- 


10. 


Line Check- Valve 




tion 


11. 


Stop Ring 


4- 


Steam Valve Hub 


12. 


Overflow Valve com- 


5- 


complete 
Steam Valve and Pri- 


13. 


plete 
Water- Valve complete 




mer complete 


14. 


Lever 


6. 


Steam Nozzle 


i5- 


Overflow Nozzle 


7- 


Lifting Tube 


16. 


Primer Nozzle 



Description. The Ohio injector is noted for its sim- 
plicity, having but few parts and those conveniently ar- 
ranged for repairing. By referring to Plate 5 it will be 
noted that the combining and delivery tubes are screwed 
directly to the delivery end connection on the right, and 
can be removed with an ordinary wrench without dis- 
turbing other tubes. The lifting tube is held in place 
between the two flanges, which are bolted together. 

This injector will also work feed-water at a higher 
temperature than the ordinary lifting injector, except 
those which are designed for the purpose of working 
feed-water at high temperature, and is interchangeable 
with all other lifting injectors in common use, the sizes 
and location of the connections being similar. 

Operation. To operate the Ohio injector open water- 
valve 13 and pull out lever 14 a short distance. This 
unseats steam valve 5 and allows steam to pass through 
primer nozzle 16 through lifting tube 7, passing over- 
flow valve 12, through passages DD, thence through 
overflow nozzle 15. This creates a partial vacuum in 
chambers WW and over the water in the feed pipe, 



LOCOMOTIVE INJECTORS. 



5i 




O 

Bi o 

O 



52 LOCOMOTIVE INJECTORS. 

which allows the water to enter chambers WW, taking 
the course of the steam from primer jet 16. When wa- 
ter is flowing freely from overflow 15, lever 14 should 
be pulled back its full stroke, or to its extreme travel. 
This opens steam valve 5 to its maximum, and steam 
is then free to flow through steam nozzle 6 into lifting 
tube 7, combining with the water in combining tube 8, 
and is forced through delivery tube 9, unseating line 
check-valve io, which allows the water to pass into 
the delivery pipe, unseating the boiler check and al- 
lowing the water to enter the boiler. The supply of 
water required in the boiler is regulated by water- 
valve 13. 

THE HANCOCK INSPIRATOR. 

Operating Parts. 
ioi. Lifter Steam Nozzle 117-c. Final Overflow 

102. Lifter Tube Valve 

103. Forcer Steam Nozzle 121. Intermediate Over- 

104. Forcer Combining flow Valve 
Tube 126. Forcer Steam Valve 

106. Connecting Rod 130. Lifter Steam Valve 

in. Line Check- Valve 131. Stud in the Lever. 

137. Lever 
Description. The Hancock inspirator consists of an 
apparatus for lifting and one for forcing. With this dis- 
tinguishing feature, common to no other injector, the 
Hancock inspirator works successfully under the most 
severe conditions, with high or low steam pressure or 
on lifts up to 25 feet, when taking feed-water under a 
head, w r ith feed-water at a high temperature, as well as 
cold water. At all steam pressures and under all con- 
ditions, its operation is the same and it requires no ad- 
justment for variation of pressures. Fig. 1 of Plate 6 
shows an exterior view of the inspirator and Fig. 2 a 
sectional view. 



LOCOMOTIVE INJECTORS. 53 

The lifting mechanism consists of a steam nozzle and 
a combining tube. The throat of the combining tube 
being much larger than the smallest opening in the steam 
nozzle enables it to increase or diminish the amount of 
water as the pressure of steam increases or decreases. 
As the pressure of steam increases the pressure in the 




Plate 6, Figure / 

HANCOCK INSPIRATOR 

delivery chamber of the lifter is increased, enabling the 
water to enter the forcer combining tube against the in- 
creased pressure of steam from the forcing nozzle, thus 
enabling it to work from low pressure to high pressure 



54 



LOCOMOTIVE INJECTORS. 



without any adjustment of either steam or water supply. 

At times the inspirator will not work satisfactorily 

with the regulating valve wide open or at its maximum, 

but will work when this valve is partially closed or when 




FIG. 2— PLATE 6. 
HANCOCK INSPIRATOR 

at its minimum. This indicates an insufficient steam sup- 
ply. It may be due to contracted openings in the valve 
next to the boiler, combination box, or the dry pipe lead- 
ing to the combination box being too small, which should 
be remedied. An insufficient supply of water caused by a 



LOCOMOTIVE INJECTORS. 55 

small-sized or restricted opening in the tank valve, small 
opening in the goose neck leading to the tank, insuffi- 
cient opening in the strainer,, a kinked or partially col- 
lapsed hose, or leaks in the feed pipe, would cause the 
inspirator to break. 

Operation. To start the inspirator, draw lever 137 
back slightly to lift the water, then draw it back to 
the stop. When lever 137 is drawn back slightly, steam 
is admitted to lifter steam valve 130, through forcer 
steam valve 126, to lifter steam nozzle 10 1. The flow of 
the steam into lifter tube 102 creates a vacuum and causes 
the water to flow through lifter tube 102, condensing the 
steam, and out through intermediate overflow valve 121, 
and through the final overflow valve 117-c in the delivery 
chamber. A further movement of lever 137 opens forcer 
steam valve 126, admitting steam to forcer steam nozzle 
103, and to forcer combining tube 104, creating a pressure 
in the delivery chamber sufficient to close intermediate 
overflow valve 121, and open intermediate or line check- 
valve 111. The final overflow valve 117-c will be 
closed and the inspirator in full operation when the lever 
is drawn back to the stop. When the pin in the wheel 
of the regulating valve is at the top, the inspirator will 
deliver its maximum quantity of water; to reduce the 
feed, turn the regulating wheel to the right. 

To use the inspirator as a heater, lift connecting 
rod 106 until' disengaged from stud 131, then draw 
back the connecting rod to close overflow valve 117-c. 
Draw the lever back to the point used in lifting. This 
will usually give all the steam that is required for a 
heater. If the amount of steam flowing back into the 
tank is too large, regulate it by the regulating wheel to 
the amount required. With the lever in this position all 
steam blowing back will pass through the lifter nozzle. 
The closing of the main steam valve at the boiler is 
unnecessarv. 



56 LOCOMOTIVE INJECTORS. 



GENERAL INFORMATION RELAT- 
ING TO INJECTORS. 



CLASSES OF INJECTORS. 

Locomotive injectors are divided into two classes — 
lifting and non-lifting. A non-lifting injector must be 
located below the bottom line in the tank, so that water 
will flow freely to the injector by gravity. A lifting in- 
jector when in operation raises the water above the level 
of the water in the tank, and is the class of injector most 
commonly used on locomotives. The majority of non- 
lifting injectors are not provided with what is termed a 
priming jet, but are supplied simply with a force jet, 
which forces the water which flows by gravity into the 
injector into the boiler. The point of overflow on the 
old style of non-lifting injectors is usually at a level with 
the injector, which necessitates the overflow being closed 
when the injector is not in service. The later types of 
non-lifting injector are equipped with a combined over- 
flow and heater cock, which is connected by a pipe with 
the injector body and extends into the cab within con- 
venient reach of the engineer. This injector can be used 
as a heater in the same manner as the lifting injector. 
Also the overflow is in sight of the engineman at all 
times, where he will be able to determine whether or not 
the injector is working properly. 

Both Injectors on the Right-Hand Side of the En- 
gine. On some locomotives on the various lines both 
injectors are placed on the right-hand side of the en- 
gine. The purpose of this arrangement is to relieve the 
fireman of the operation of the injector usually located 
on the left-hand side, both injectors being placed with- 



LOCOMOTIVE INJECTORS. 57 

in convenient reach of the engineman. Each injector 
is provided with an independent check-valve and de- 
livery pipe (Plate 9). Both injectors inject the water 
into the boiler through a pipe in the shape of a goose 
neck, located in the boiler where the check is usually 
placed. The valves are provided with removable seats, 
shown in Plates 8 and 9. By closing stop valve A, 
check-valves BB and their seats may be removed for 
inspection or repairs while the boiler is under steam. 
This type of check-valve is provided with hubs on the 
body between the stop-valve and the check-valve, for 
the purpose of inserting an independent drain valve. 

Injectors Working Feed- Water of High Tempera- 
ture. Injectors will not work feed-water that is heated 
to a point beyond the requirements of the water for 
condensation of the steam which is admitted to the in- 
jector and transmits its force to the water in the com- 
bining and condensing nozzle. One of the principles 
upon which the injector operates is the high velocity 
of steam entering the steam and combining nozzle, 
where it meets the water and transmits its maximum 
velocity, combined with the mixture of water, into the 
delivery nozzle, whereby it is reduced by means of the 
expanding curves or tapers. Hence it is apparent that 
the lower the temperature of the feed-water the greater 
the condensation will be when the steam combines 
with the water, which will cause the injector to in- 
crease its capacity, or discharge of water, into the 
boiler. It will also be understood that the higher the 
steam pressure the lower the temperature of the feed- 
water should be for a given amount of water to be in- 
jected into the boiler. The lower steam pressure being of 
a lower temperature will work the feed-water at a 
higher temperature, to accomplish a given amount of 
work by the injector. 



58 LOCOMOTIVE INJECTORS. 

There are special designs of injectors which will work 
feed-water at a higher temperature than the ordinary lift- 
ing or non-lifting injector. It is always desirable that 
feed-water with all classes of injectors be heated to a 
temperature as high as the injector will work without 
affecting its efficiency under the various conditions which 
are to be met in road service. However, the heating of 
the feed-water is a matter which must be watched closely 
by the engineman, for the reason that if it be neglected 
it may reach a higher temperature than will allow the 
injectors to furnish the necessary amount of water to 
supply the boiler. The heating of the feed- water must 
also be regulated according to the particular class of 
service ; that is, engines in passenger or light freight 
service may use a higher temperature of feed-water than 
engines engaged in the handling of heavy traffic, the 
temperature to be regulated by the class and capacity of 
the injector in use. 

Causes of Injectors Located on Left-Hand Side of 
Engine Failing to Work. Injectors located upon the 
left-hand side of the locomotive are frequently neg- 
lected by the engineman, and fail to work when 
needed, by reason of their being allowed to remain idle 
until such times as the failure of the right-hand in- 
jector demands their use. During the time the injector 
remains idle, its parts become corroded with lime and 
other impurities contained in the water. The boiler 
check also becomes corroded to an extent which causes 
it to remain closed, the injector not being able to raise 
the check off its seat to admit the water into the boiler. 
The neglect of the left-hand injector frequently causes 
engine failures, which could be avoided had it received 
the necessary care and attention each trip. 

Failures of Injectors. If the injectors refuse to 
work, the engine throttle should be closed and imme- 



LOCOMOTIVE INJECTORS. 59 

diate attention be given to the water supply. It should 
be noted that the tank valves have the necessary open- 
ing and are not disconnected from the stem. If the 
siphon feed pipe or valve is in use the plug or vent 
should be looked at, to see that it is closed and that 
no air is admitted to the feed pipe. The water in 
the tank should be looked at, to see that there is a 
sufficient supply for the operation of injectors, mak- 
ing allowance for the surge of the water in the tank 
when the engine is in motion. The hose should re- 
ceive attention, to see that it is not disconnected and 
is properly coupled and not kinked and that no air 
is admitted at that point. The strainers should be 
examined, to see that they are not clogged and that 
a sufficient amount of water may pass through them 
to allow the injector to operate. The heater valve should 
be given attention, to see that it is not closed and that the 
connection of the feed pipe to the injector is tight, so that 
no air is admited at the union. The manhole cover of 
the tank should receive attention, to see that it is not air- 
tight, as one of the principles of the lifting injectors is 
that the atmospheric pressure which enters the tank on 
top of the water assists in raising the water to the in- 
jector, where it combines with the steam and is forced 
into the boiler. 

INJECTOR DEFECTS. 

The principal defects of the injector, which prevent 
the starting of the instrument, are due to steam leaking 
by the main steam valve or water leaking by the boiler 
check, which prevents the injector from priming, as 
these leakages destroy the vacuum in the feed pipe 
above the ■ water. Injectors which are equipped with 
independent priming valves at times become disconnected, 
which prevents them from priming. The main 



60 LOCOMOTIVE INJECTORS. 

steam valve at the fountain should receive attention, to 
see that it has the proper opening to supply the necessary 
amount of steam for the operation of the injector. 

Other defects in the injector which will cause it to 
fail are as follows : 

Too great a volume of steam admitted to the injector 
for the volume of water admitted to condense; leaks in 
the feed pipe; a loose steam, combining or delivery noz- 
zle; the nozzles or tubes being out of line or corroded; 
the boiler check becoming stuck so that it cannot be 
raised, or the globe valve in the delivery pipe being 
closed. 

When steam continues to blow at the overflow on 
the Monitor injector it can be determined as to wheth- 
er the leak is in the primer or throttle valve by putting 
the injector to work. If, when the injector is working, 
the escape of steam at the overflow ceases, it indicates 
that the throttle valve is leaking, but if the blow con- 
tinues it w r ould indicate that it is the primer that is 
leaking. If both water and steam flow from the over- 
flow when the injector is not in use, it indicates that 
the boiler check is leaking. 

Causes of Injectors Forcing Only Part of the Water 
Into the Boiler. When an injector lifts the water but 
forces only a part of it into the boiler, the balance being 
forced through the overflow to the ground, it may be 
caused by an insufficient water supply, due to the feed 
pipe having too small an area in proportion to the size 
of the injector; a kinked hose which reduces the water 
supply; a tank valve that is partly closed or the water- 
valve in the injector not given its full opening; obstruc- 
supply; a tank valve that is partly closed or the water- 
etc, passing through the strainers ; an insufficient lift of 
the boiler check ; the boiler check opening only partially, 
or the line check only partially open, due to corrosion. 



LOCOMOTIVE INJECTORS. 61 

Incrustations or corrosion of the nozzles by limy de- 
posits will cause the injector to spray and will result in 
the improper working of the instrument. The injurious 
effects of bad water and the corrosion of the tubes may 
be overcome by frequently cleaning and placing the in- 
strument in an acid bath, which removes incrustations 
and all other limy deposits accumulated on its various 
parts. 

Converting an Injector Into a Heater. All injectors 
may be converted into heaters by closing the heater valve 
and opening the injector throttle enough to furnish a 
supply of steam back through the feed pipe and hose to 
the tank, in addition to furnishing a supply of steam 
through the delivery pipe to the frost cock, usually located 
in the delivery pipe, near or connected to the check-valve. 
Steam must escape from the frost cock at all times to 
prevent freezing of the delivery pipe. Particular atten- 
tion must be given to the heater by the engineman at all 
times, as the frost cock frequently becomes clogged by 
scale, dirt, or other matter, and stops the circulation 
of steam in the pipe, which will then freeze within a 
short period of time. The engineman should also give 
particular attention to the heater working into the tank. 
The volume of steam being admitted to the tank may be 
regulated by the water-valve. The tank valve should also 
be nearly closed to prevent the inrush of water into the 
hose and feed pipe during the time the injector is used 
as a heater. 

How to Thaw Out a Feed or Delivery Pipe Which 
May Have Become Frozen. To prevent damage by 
bursting, when thawing out, of the feed or delivery 
pipes which may have become frozen, the connection 
between the hose and feed pipe should be thawed first. 
The joint should then be broken to allow the water to 
pass out of the feed pipe as fast as the thawing takes 



62 LOCOMOTIVE INJECTORS. 

place. The pipe should then be thawed from the coup- 
ling of the hose to the connection with the injector, or 
as far as it may have become frozen. The feed or de- 
livery pipes should never be thawed without an open- 
ing for the water to escape, for the reason that the 
thawing of the pipe which is frozen on each side of the 
water will expand and burst the pipe, as the pressure 
of the expansion cannot be relieved. After the feed 
pipe has been opened, a slight jet of steam should be 
turned on, which will work itself back into the hose, 
the water from the ice and condensation of the steam 
escaping at the coupling. The steam will continue to 
thaw the frozen hose back to and past the tank valve 
to the water. Steam only should be used for the thaw- 
ing of tank hose on the road. 

Should the delivery pipe become frozen it should be 
thawed in the same manner; that is, disconnect or break 
the joint enough to cause a leakage at the connection to 
the injector, starting at that point and working forward. 
In the event the delivery pipe remained hot next to the 
check-valve and frost cock it would indicate that the 
check-valve was leaking slightly, and the frost cock 
should be opened or removed from the pipe, allowing the 
circulation of water from the boiler past the check- valve 
to pass out through the opening of the frost cock, which 
would also thaw out the pipe toward the injector. 

To Operate an Injector With the Primer Discon- 
nected. Injectors having independent priming valves 
may be operated when disconnected. In order to accom- 
plish this, the main steam valve should be shut off at the 
fountain, taking out the primer valve and connecting it 
up if possible. If this cannot be accomplished the valve 
should be taken out, after which the remaining parts may 
be put back in place. The injector should then be primed 
by slightly opening the main valve at the fountain until 



LOCOMOTIVE INJECTORS. 63 

priming takes place, after which the main valve may be 
opened sufficiently to supply the necessary steam for the 
operation of the injector. After this movement is com- 
pleted the injector throttle should be opened and the in- 
jector will go to work. To shut off the injector under 
those conditions, the valve at the fountain should be 
closed first and the injector throttle closed next. If the 
injector throttle on the injector were closed first, the in- 
strument would still remain primed. 

Foreign Matter in the Steam, Combining or Deliv- 
ery Tubes. In the event of an accumulation of foreign 
matter in the steam, combining or delivery tubes, 
which interferes with the proper working of the in- 
jector, it can be removed by shutting off the steam at 
the fountain, and removing the main steam valve at 
the body of the injector, which will allow the obstruc- 
tions to be removed by the use of a wire. 

Care of the Engine When Injectors Fail on the 
Road. When injectors fail on the road, the first duties 
of the engineman are to close the throttle, drop the 
dampers, open the fire-box door to prevent the engine 
from blowing off, with a view of saving all the water 
there is in the boiler until the necessary repairs can be 
made to the injectors, without knocking the fire out of 
the engine. In the event of there being a heavy fire in 
the engine, and the opening of the door will not pre- 
vent blowing off, the fire should be extinguished by 
water or smothered by the application of fine slack 
coal, in order that the water contained in the boiler will 
not be wasted, which allows more time for the repairs 
to the water supply without making a complete engine 
failure and giving up the train. 

Disconnected Tank Valve. A tank valve which 
may become disconnected closed can usually be opened 
or displaced by closing the heater valve and giving 



64 



BOILER CHECKS. 



the steam throttle in the injector a full opening, 
which will allow the steam to force its way back 
through the feed pipe and hose to the under side of 
the valve, forcing the valve from its seat. 

BOILER CHECKS. 

Purpose of the Boiler Check. The purpose of the 
boiler check is to prevent a return flow of water from 
the boiler when the injector is not in use. This valve is 
automatically closed when the injector is shut off, by the 
pressure from the boiler acting upon its upper surface. 
Careful attention should be given to the boiler check, as 
no type of injector will work in a satisfactory manner 
unless the boiler check is given the necessary opening. 
The boiler check should make a good tight joint on its 
seat at all times to prevent the water from flowing back 
into the injector, which in many instances causes it to 




O 

Plate 7 

ANGLE BOILER CHECK— FLANGED 

fail. The boiler check is extremely simple in its con- 
struction and with a little care and attention can be kept 
in perfect working condition. The type of checks in 
common use is usually provided with three or more lugs 
or wings, which are cast to the valve below its seat (Plate 



BOILER CHECKS. 



6s 



7). The purpose of these lugs or wings is to assist in 
reseating the valve centrally by acting as guides. These 
lugs or wings should not be fitted in the casing too 
loosely, as they are liable to become corroded and cause 
the valve to stick. In some of the improved types of 
check-valves these lugs are cast fan-shaped, or inclined 
from their seats, which creates a revolving check (Plate 




JOINTRING 



TO BOILER 




W^'M > 



s^wa a 



Plate 8 

BOILER CHECK WITH STOP VALVE 



66 BOILER CHECKS. 

7). The lift of the check-valve should be in proportion 
to its diameter and the capacity of the injector, the lift 
varying with the different sizes of injectors and check- 
valves. 

An additional or intermediate check-valve is used on 
some classes of engines, which is located in the delivery 
pipe between the injector and the boiler check. The pur- 
pose of the intermediate checkrvalve is to prevent a 
leakage past the check- valve from reaching the injector 
and causing it to heat. 

How to Reseat a Boiler Check. The frost cock 
should be opened, which will allow the pressure from 
the boiler which passes the check-valve into the deliv- 
ery pipe to escape, instead of passing back through 
the injector. The cage should be tapped lightly on 
the under side, which will assist in reseating the valve. 
Care should be taken when tapping the check-valve 
that the blow Avill not be sufficient to dent or spring 
the cage in which the check-valve operates. The 
opening of the frost cock will relieve the pressure 
from forcing its way into the injector to the extent that 
the injector will prime, after which the injector may be 
put to work and the water entering the boiler will usually 
remove the cause for the check remaining off its seat, 
after which the frost cock will be closed. The method of 
reseating the check-valve as described is applicable to 
type of boiler check shown in Plate 7. 

In the event that the check-valve cannot be reseated 
or the injector started by the methods previously de- 
scribed, it will be necessary to close the heater and 
water-valve to prevent the heated water from blowing 
back into the tank, causing the water to become over- 
heated. If the water-valve will not close tightly, it will 
be necessary to disconnect the hose from the feed pipe 
and open the heater cock, allowing the hot water to blow 
into the atmosphere instead of into the tank. If the 



BOILER CHECKS. 



67 




68 SIPHON TANK CONNECTION.. 

opposite injector will not supply the boiler under these 
conditions it will be necessary to put the train on the 
first siding and fill the boiler, reducing the steam pressure, 
after which the delivery pipe can be disconnected at the 
check and the valve then be reseated with the use of a 
suitable rod which can be inserted into the check-valve 
case and under the valve. 

On some classes of engines the frost cock is tapped 
into the lower part of the check casing (Plate 7), in 
which case the frost cock can then be taken out and a 
rod inserted under the check, raising the check farther 
off its seat and allowing the foreign matter to be blown 
from its seat. Under similar circumstances where there 
is a boiler check with stop valve, as shown in Plates 8 
and 9, this valve should be closed, which will prevent 
the hot water from flowing into the injector. The 
primer should then be opened, which will allow the 
injector to prime, and after the water has been allowed 
to flow through the injector freely until the instrument 
is cool the globe valve may be opened and the injector 
will go to work. 

THE SIPHON TANK CONNECTION. 

Some engines are equipped with what is known as the 
Siphon tank connection, which is used in place of the old 
standard tank valve. This type of water connection has 
a decided advantage over the old form of tank valve, as it 
is more easily and economically applied. It also elimi- 
nates the necessity of the strainer in the hose connections, 
which frequently becomes clogged, and is one of the most 
frequent causes of injector failures. With the device 
shown in Plate 10 there can be no flooding of the tank or 
gangway due to leakage of water at the tank valve-stem, 
which is always an element of danger, in cold or freez- 
ing weather. In addition to this, the annoyance of dis- 



SIPHON TANK CONNECTION. 



69 



connected tank valves, which necessitates the draining 
of the tank in order to permit their reconnection, is 
eliminated. It is also more easily kept from freezing. 




PLATE 10. 
SIPHON TANK CONNECTION 

One of its principal advantages over the old style tank 
valve is that it permits the use of a larger strainer with 
small openings, which allows a sufficient supply of water 
to enter the feed pipe and prevents foreign matter from 
entering the feed pipe and being drawn into the injector, 
stopping up the nozzles and tubes. 

To Clean the Strainer on a Siphon Tank Connection. 
When the strainer on a siphon tank connection becomes 
clogged, it can temporarily be cleaned without stopping 
the engine, by closing the heater cock and opening the 



70 STEAM-HEAT REDUCING VALVES. 

throttle full} r , blowing the steam back into the tank, 
which removes all matter which has been drawn to the 
strainer on its exterior side. To clean the strainer and 
trap thoroughly the tank should be empty, plug A in the 
trap removed, allowing the steam to blow back sufficiently 
to drive the sediment or foreign matter out of strainer B 
and trap C, after which plug A should be replaced. 

To stop the water from running constantly if the tank 
hose has become disconnected or is to be taken down for 
the purpose of making repairs the small pet cock D or 
plug, which is sometimes used, should be opened for the 
purpose of admitting air, which destroys the action of the 
siphon. The pet cock should be closed at all times when 
the siphon is in use. 

STEAM-HEAT REDUCING VALVES. 

There are several different types or styles of pressure 
reducing valves in use on the locomotive for the purpose 
of maintaining uniform pressure in steam-heat lines. 

THE MASON VALVE, 

Operating Parts. 

A. Inlet for Steam I. Main Valve Spring 

B. Outlet NN. Steam Passage from 

C. Auxiliary Valve Auxiliary Valve to 

D. Metal Diaphragm Piston 

E. Regulating Spring XX. Steam Passage Lead- 

F. Piston ing to Diaphragm 

G. ' Main Valve OO. Chamber Under Dia- 
H. Auxiliary Valve phragm 

Spring 

Construction and Operation. The Mason reducing 

valve (Plate n) is one of the types of valves used on 

locomotives for steam heating purposes and in supplying 

steam to stationary engines used to operate dynamos in 



STEAM-HEAT REDUCING VALVES. 71 




PLATE 11. 
MASON STEAM-HEAT REDUCING VALVE 



72 STEAM-HEAT REDUCING VALVES. 

train lighting. The principle upon which this type of 
valve operates is as follows : Auxiliary valve C is con- 
trolled by low pressure in the heating system through 
the medium of metal diaphragm D. This diaphragm is 
controlled by spring E, which may be set for any pres- 
sure desired in the steam-heat line. Spring E forces 
auxiliary valve C off its seat when steam is admitted 
from the boiler at the side of the valve marked A. The 
steam is then free to pass auxiliary valve C through 
ports NN to the under side of piston F. By raising pis- 
ton F the main valve G is also opened against the 
boiler pressure. By reason of piston F having a greater 
area than valve G, steam can then pass by valve G to 
the steam-heat line. When the pressure in the steam- 
heat line has reached the pressure at which the regu- 
lating spring is set, diaphragm D is forced upward by 
the steam line pressure which passes through port XX 
to chamber OO under diaphragm D. This allows aux- 
iliary valve C to close by the aid of the boiler pressure 
and spring H, thereby shutting off the steam from 
passage NN to the under side of piston F. The steam 
that is entrapped between piston F and auxiliary valve 
C is then free to pass by the loose fitting piston to the 
steam-heat line. The main valve G is now forced down 
to its seat by the boiler pressure and spring I, shutting 
off the steam from the steam-heat line and forcing pis- 
ton F down to the bottom of its cylinder. 

When the pressure in the steam-heat line and that in 
chamber OO under the diaphragm is slightly reduced 
below that of adjusting spring E, the valve will again 
open, permitting the steam to flow into the steam-heat 
line until the required pressure is attained. 



STEAM-HEAT REDUCING VALVES. 73 

THE TAAFEL STEAM-HEAT REDUCING 
VALVE. 

Operating Parts. The Taafel steam-heat reducing 
valve (Plate 12) consists of the following operating 
parts : 



A. 


Inlet 


G. 


Piston 


B. 


Inlet Port to Regulat- 


H. 


Main Valve 




ing Valve Chamber 


I. 


Outlet 


C. 


Regulating Valve 


J. 


Port to Diaphragm 


D. 


Adjusting Spring 




Chamber 


E. 


Diaphragm 


K. 


Regulating Valve 


F. 


Port from Regulating 




Spring 




Chamber to Piston 


L. 


Main Valve Spring 




Chamber 


M. 


Regulating Cap 



Operation. Steam from the inlet side A enters from 
the right-hand side, shown in Plate 12. A portion of the 
steam passes up through port B to the regulating valve 
C, its normal position being off its seat, due to the down- 
ward pressure of the regulating spring D on the dia- 
phragm E, which, in turn, bears upon regulating valve 
C. This valve being open, allows the steam to pass to 
chamber above piston G, which it forces downward, 
opening main valve H and allowing the steam from the 
boiler to pass to the train heating system at the outlet I. 
Port J connects the under side of diaphragm E with the 
heating system. When the pressure under the diaphragm 
reaches the pressure that the adjusting spring D is set 
to withstand, the slightly additional pressure will cause 
diaphragm E to move upward far enough to release reg- 
ulating valve C, allowing the valve to be seated by the 
tension of spring K. No further supply of steam from 
the inlet side can reach the chamber above piston G and 
all pressure that is entrapped above piston G can pass 
around the piston, the steam equalizing with the steam 
pressure underneath. Piston G being equally balanced, 



74 



STEAM-HEAT REDUCING VALVES. 
M 




Plate 12 

TAAFEL STEAM-HEAT REDUCING VALVE 

permits main valve spring L to close main valve H, shut- 
ting off further supply of steam to the heating system. 
As soon as the pressure in the steam-heat line and under- 
neath diaphragm E becomes slightly reduced, adjusting 
spring D again forces the diaphragm downward, unseat- 
ing regulating valve C, which again allows a supply of 
steam to the system. To adjust this valve, screw down 
on regulating cap M. This puts a tension on adjusting 
spring D. If too much pressure is admitted to the steam- 



STEAM-HEAT REDUCING VALVES. 75 

heat system, slack off on regulating cap M, which re- 
duces the tension on the adjusting spring D. 

THE GOLD PRESSURE REGULATOR. 





Operating Parts. 


A. 


Inlet 


L. 


Top Spring 


B. 


Outlet 


M. 


Dome of Regulator 


C. 


Bolt and Nut for 


N. 


Lock-Nut 




Dome and Body 


0. 


Top Flange 


DD 


. Balancing Spindle 


P. 


Bottom Flange 


F. 


Bottom Spring 


Q. 


Top Spindle 


G. 


Body of Regulator 


R. 


Set-Screw 


H. 


Bottom Plug 


T. 


Union Nut (Inlet) 


I. 


Handle 


U. 


Union Nut (Outlet) 


J- 


Top Nut 


VV. 


Main Valve 


K. 


Hollow Screw 


ss. 


Recesses 




Construction and Operation. 


Plate 13 shows a sec- 



tional view of the Gold pressure regulator and its parts. 
This valve is of the diaphragm type, and is nearly a bal- 
anced valve. The diaphragm is constructed of thin 
bronze, slightly corrugated on the outer edge, with an en- 
larged flange O, which aids the diaphragm in retaining 
its original shape. The dome M of the regulator is solid, 
which would prevent the steam from escaping into the 
cab should the diaphragm break or become defective. The 
recess shown at SS provides a water-seal, which prevents 
a chattering or vibration of the valve. 

The regulator is set by handle I, which is perforated 
for the purpose of keeping it cool. The handle marked 
N is an extension of a lock-nut, which holds the regu- 
lating screw firmly in any position at which it may be set. 
The set-screw R is provided for the purpose of a check 
on the maximum or minimum amount of pressure re- 
quired. Spring L is controlled by set-screw R. Spring 
F assists in guiding the spindle DD and also tends to 



76 



STEAM-HEAT REDUCING VALVES. 




PLATE 13. 
GOLD PRESSURE REGULATOR 

assist in the balancing of the valve, and aids in the oper- 
ation of the valve and spindle should they become 
gummed or corroded in any manner. Main valve VV is 
opened and closed by the movement of the diaphragm. 
The regulating spring L forces the diaphragm down, the 
main valve remaining open until the steam from the out- 
let side of the valve closes the main valve. 



STEAM-HEAT REDUCING VALVES. 77 

DEFECTS OF REDUCING VALVES. 

All reducing valves are subject to defects which cause 
them to become inoperative. When the main steam valve 
is cut or the auxiliary valve is leaking badly, the small 
spring which holds the auxiliary valve to its seat is usu- 
ally found to be broken. Either of these valves held open, 
or the piston F off its seat in the Mason reducing 
valve, or piston G stuck down in the bushing with the 
Taafel valve, will also tend to hold the main valve 
to its seat. If the bottom spring is broken or miss- 
ing it will also allow the steam to pass directly to steam- 
heat line, or if the tension of the adjusting spring is too 
great with any type of valve the pressure in the heating 
line will become too great. 

Steam Failing to Pass Through Steam-Heat Valves. 
Steam failing to pass through steam-heat valves indi- 
cates that there is no tension on the adjusting springs, 
or that they may be broken, and possibly parts of the 
valve missing in the spring casing, or no steam is ad- 
mitted from the boiler to the valve. 

Action to Be Taken by the Engineman When No 
Steam Will Pass Through Reducing Valve to the Steam- 
Heat Line. On the Mason reducing valve remove the 
casing below the piston and insert a washer or nut in 
the cap, and replace the casing. This will force the main 
valve off its seat. 

On other types of valves take off the cap nut and 
remove the main steam valve, replacing the cap nut and 
govern the pressure of the steam-heat line by the throt- 
tle. When pressure to the steam-heat line is governed 
by the throttle, particular attention must be paid to the 
pressure by the engineman to prevent it from be- 
coming excessive in the steam-heat line, which creates an 
element of danger by reason of the liability of the pipes 
to burst within the coaches and endanger the safety of 



;8 SAFETY-VALVES. 

passengers, in addition to the danger of steam hose 
bursting between the coaches. 

When governing the pressure in the steam-heat line 
by the throttle there is no opening which could be given 
that would maintain a uniform pressure, unless a uniform 
pressure was maintained in the boiler, as the pressure in 
the steam-heat line will fluctuate with boiler pressure. 

SAFETY-VALVES. 

THE COALE SAFETY-VALVE AND MUFFLER. 

List of Parts. The parts of the Coale safety-valve 
(Plate 14) are as follows : 

iB. Base 9. Cap for Plain Valve 

2. Spring Case 10. Cap for Lever Valve 

3B. Modified Muffler 11B. Improved Adjusting 
Dome Ring 

4. Valve 12B. Bolt for Locking and 

5. Lower Spring But- Adjusting Ring 

ton for Relief 13B. Relief Lever 

Lever Valve 14. Relief Spindle 

6. Lower Spring But- 15. Spring for Relief 

ton for Plain Valve Lever Spindle 

7. Upper Spring Button 16. Valve Spring 

8. Spring Bolt 

Description and Operation. Safety-valves are usually 
placed in the dome or capsen. Their purpose is to re- 
lieve any excessive pressure in the boiler, above the re- 
sistance at which they are set. When the pressure in the 
boiler exceeds the tension of regulating spring 16, its 
valve 4 is forced off its seat, allowing the steam to es- 
cape' to the atmosphere, until such time as the surplus 
of pressure has escaped. Spring 16 will then force main 
valve 4 to its seat. The construction of the muffler safety- 
valve is so designed that it will reduce the noise of escap- 



SAFETY-VALVES. 



79 





PLATE 14. 
THE COALE MUFFLER AND SAFETY-VALVE 



80 SAFETY-VALVES. 

ing steam to a minimum, which eliminates the undesirable 
annoyance of engines blowing off. 

How to Regulate the Opening and Closing of the 
Valve. To regulate the Coale safety-valve, unscrew cap 
9, shown in Plate 14, and regulate the tension of the 
spring by spring bolt 8, according to whether more or 
less pressure is desired. To regulate the opening and 
closing of the valve, unscrew bolt 12B, and by the use 
of any pointed instrument the adjustable screw ring 11B 
may be moved either to the right or left. If the valve 
does not close without too much loss of boiler pressure, 
move the adjustable screw ring 11B to the left, one notch 
at a time, until the desired adjustment has been reached. 
To increase the discharge of steam, move the ring 11B 
to the right. After the valve has been adjusted, replace 
the bolt 12B, which must enter the notches in the adjust- 
ing ring before it can be firmly screwed into place. The 
omission of entering bolt 12B into the notches may 
affect the operation of the valve. 

How to Examine the Inside of the Valve. To exam- 
ine the interior of the valve and muffler, ' unscrew cap 9 
and slack off on spring bolt 8. To relieve the tension of 
spring 16, unscrew dome 3 and spring casing 2, when 
the interior arrangement of the valve and muffler will be 
in plain view for examination. 

Difference in Pressure of Two or More Safety- 
Valves Placed Upon the Same Boiler. When two or 
more safety-valves are used on a boiler, it is always 
customary and desirable to have a variation in the 
pressure at which they are set, which is usually from 
three to five pounds. 

CROSBY SAFETY-VALVE. 

Description. The valve proper B (Plate 15) rests 
upon two flat angular seats (VV and WW) and is held 



SAFETY-VALVES. 81 

down against the pressure of steam by spiral spring S. 
The tension of spring S is obtained by screwing down on 
bolt L at the top of cylinder K. The difference of area 
between the seats W and V is that part of the valve 
which the steam pressure acts upon to overcome the re- 
sistance of the spring. The smaller seat WW is not acted 
upon until the valve opens. The larger seat VV rests 
on the upper edge of the shell or body A. The smaller 
seat WW is located in the upper edge of cylinder cham- 
ber or valve C, which is located in the center of the shell 
or body of the valve, and is held in place by arms DD, 
radiating horizontally and connecting it with the body of 
the valve. These arms have passages EE for the escape 
of steam from the well into the atmosphere when the 
valve is open. This well is deepened so as to allow the 
wings XX of the valve proper to project into it far 
enough to act as guides. The flange G is for the purpose 
of modifying the sides of the passages EE and for turn- 
ing upward the steam issuing therefrom. 

Operation. When the pressure of the valve is within 
a pound of the maximum pressure required, the valve 
opens slightly and steam escapes through the outer seat 
into the cylinder, and thence into the atmosphere. The 
steam also enters through the inner seat in the well and 
thence through the passages in the arms to the atmos- 
phere. When the pressure in the boiler attains its maxi- 
mum, the valve is forced higher and steam is admitted 
into the well faster than it can escape through the pass- 
ages in the arms, and its pressure rapidly accumulates 
under the inner seat. This pressure acting upon an addi- 
tional area overcomes the increasing resistance of the 
regulating spring and forces the valve wide open, which 
quickly relieves the boiler of its surplus pressure. When 
the pressure within the boiler is reduced, the flow of 
steam in the well is reduced and the pressure diminished. 



82 



SAFETY-VALVES. 




PLATE 15. 
CROSBYS POP SAFETY VALVE. 



SAFETY-VALVES. 83 

The valve gradually settles down until the area of the 
opening into the well is less than the area of the aper- 
tures in the arms, and the valve promptly closes. 

Directions for Adjusting. Adjust the head bolt L, 
which compresses the spring, upward for diminishing 
pressure, or downward for increasing pressure, until 
the valve opens at the pressure desired, indicated by 
the steam-gauge. To regulate the valve for the loss of 
escaping steam after the surplus pressure has been re- 
lieved, turn the screw ring G upward for increasing or 
downward for decreasing. 

General Instructions. Enginemen should never at- 
tempt to adjust or regulate safety-valves or mufflers on 
the road, except when the valve may have been removed 
for any purpose. The regulation and adjustment of the 
safety-valves is always taken care of at the shops by men 
who are assigned to this particular class of work. It is 
impracticable for enginemen to regulate the valve, except 
in emergency cases. In all cases before safety-valves are 
regulated the steam-gauge is tested, in order that the 
valve may be set at the pressure which the boiler is de- 
signed to carry. Should the engineman attempt to ad- 
just safety-valves without knowing that the steam-gauge 
is accurate, disastrous results might possibly occur. 

DEFECTS OF SAFETY-VALVES. 
If the safety-valve adjustment spring should break, 
the throttle should be shut off and the dampers closed. 
The injectors should be put to work and as much 
water put into the boiler as possible, which aids in 
reducing the steam pressure. When the steam pres- 
sure has been reduced sufficiently to permit of work- 
ing on the valve, slack off on the jam nut (if the 
valve is provided with one) and screw down on the 
spring bolt, forcing the valve rigidly to its seat. If 



84 LOCOMOTIVE STEAM WHISTLE. 

necessary, remove the broken adjusting spring and 
block the valve solid to its seat, after which the jam nut 
should be set down solid and the opposite safety-valves 
set to relieve the pressure at which the defective valve 
worked before the defect occurred. The fire can then be 
built up and the engine gotten ready to proceed under 
full pressure. 

LOCOMOTIVE STEAM WHISTLE. 

Chime Steam Whistle. The Nathan type of steam 
chime whistle (Plate 16) consists of an inverted metal 
cup or bell, usually constructed of brass. The lower 
edge of this bell is placed over an annular opening aa, 
from which the steam escapes and strikes the edge of 
bell A. 

The bell of the chime whistle has three different par- 
titions or compartments, each of which has a different 
depth, producing three distinct tones, pitched to first, 
third and fifth of a common musical scale, which har- 
monize and produce an agreeable musical chord. This 
class of steam whistle is more penetrating and can be 
heard at a greater distance than the common whistle. 

It has been found by experience that whistles used 
under high pressure, and they are to-day generally so 
used, are sounded and operated with difficulty and 
great exertion. To meet this difficulty, that is to sound 
whistles of any size, no matter what the pressure is, 
with little effort, this whistle was designed. The ease of 
operation can readily be seen by examination of the cut. 
The only valve which must be operated by force is the 
small one b, which is held closed by a spiral spring c 
pressed to the foot of lever d. A slight pull on this lever 
pushes inward the valve and permits steam to flow into 
chamber e and to open automatically the large valve / 



LOCOMOTIVE STEAM WHISTLE. 



85 



and sound the whistle. By this device the largest 
whistles under the highest pressure of steam are op- 
erated with ease. 




PLATE 16. 
NATHAN STEAM CHIME WHISTLE 



86 



LOCOMOTIVE STEAM-GAUGE. 

Operation. The pressure in the locomotive boiler is 
indicated by an instrument known as a steam-gauge. 
There is a great variety of such instruments in use, which 
may be divided into two classes. Only the tyjte most 
commonly used will be described. 

The steam pressure acts on the inside of the brass 
tubes AB (Plate 17), which has a tendency to straighten 
the tubes, thus spreading their ends, to which is at- 
tached a bent lever C, which imparts a movement to 
the hand D. The hand indicates on the gauge dial the 
number of pounds pressure which cause it to move to 
the position indicated on the gauge. Steam-gauges are 
adjusted when cold. The delicate mechanism of the gauge 
is adjusted to resist certain pressures and correctly indi- 
cate them when all parts are at a given temperature. 
The steam-pipe, which connects with the gauge at E, 
should be bent in the shape of the letter S on all gauges, 
to permit the steam to be condensed and entrapped in the 
pipe, as steam pressure directly affects the elasticity 
of the tubes. 

Care of the Steam-Gauge. Steam-gauges should be 
removed, cleaned and tested at regular intervals, in order 
that the pressure on the boiler may be properly indicated 
at all times. 



DEFECTS. 

Steam-gauges are seldom affected by defects which 
interfere with their operation. One of the principal 
defects is leakage in the pipe leading from the gauge to 
the boiler, which at times becomes loose at the connection 
with the steam-gauge, permitting the water in the con- 
necting pipe to escape at the leakage, which will allow 



STEAM-GAUGE. 



87 



steam to act directly upon the tubes within the gauge, 
affecting the elasticity of the tubes to the extent that the 
gauge will not register correctly, but instead will indicate 
a higher pressure than the actual pressure within tfrfc 
boiler. This defect can be remedied by tightening up on 
the connection at the steam-gauge. In the event of the 
leakage not being stopped by this operation, and a gasket 
is used, the boiler valve should be closed, the joint dis- 
connected, all foreign matter cleaned off the seats of the 
joint, or a new gasket inserted if one has been used. All 
joints leading to the steam-gauge should be kept tight at 
all times. 




PLATE 17. 
CROSBY STEAM GAUGE. 



Another defect which occasionally occurs and causes 
the steam-gauge to fail to register correctly is the stop- 
ping up or clogging of the steam valve connection at the 
boiler, which may be clogged and cause the gauge to fail 



88 GAUGE-COCKS. 

to register the correct pressure. This defect can only 
be remedied when there is no pressure on the boiler, and 

should it occur while the engine is on the road the en- 
gineman can only be governed by the safety-valve and 
the operation of the engine. 

Other defects occurring in the steam-gauge are slight 
leakages in the tubes within the gauge, which cause an 
accumulation of vapor on the dial that obstructs the 
view. 

GAUGE-COCKS. 

The height of the water in locomotive boilers can be 
determined by two different appliances, which are called 
gauge-cocks, and the water-glass. Each locomotive is 
provided with three or more gauge-cocks, which are 
usually placed at the back end of the boiler (Plate 18 
shows an exterior and interior view of the plain gauge- 
cock and the manner in which it is attached) and located 
in a convenient place where they can easily be reached by 
the engineman. They are so spaced that one is three or 
four inches above the other. The upper gauge-cock is 
placed at a point above where the surface of the water 
should be when the engine is working. The lower gauge- 
cock is placed below the surface of the water. The pur- 
pose of the upper and lower gauge-cock is that the upper 
one connects with the steam and the lower one with the 
water. When these gauge-cocks are opened steam should 
be discharged from the upper one and water from the 
lower one. If the middle cock is opened it will show 
whether or not the water is above or below the middle 
cock and indicate to the engineman the actual level of 
the water. If the top gauge-cock is open and it dis- 
charges water it indicates that there is too much water 
carried in the boiler. When the lower gauge-cock is 
opened and steam is discharged from it, it will indicate 
that there is insufficient water in the boiler and that the 



GAUGE-COCKS. 



89 




PLATE 18. 
PLAIN GAUGE-COCKS 



90 GAUGE-COCKS. 

heating surface is in danger of being exposed to the fire. 
If so exposed a very short time, it will become over- 
heated, causing the sheets to become hot and softening 
the metal. The pressure being exerted on the sheets at 
the time is liable to force them off the stays. 

Plate 19 shows the new type or style of gauge-cock. 
This gauge-cock is constructed in two parts, which can 
be offset, one from the other, thus closing the port open- 
ings DD, for the purpose of repacking or renewing the 
working parts without detaching it from the boiler while 
the necessary repairs are being made when the boiler is 
under steam pressure. When the gauge is to be offset 
for the purpose of making repairs, move the squares out 
of position and tighten up the coupling nut. This will 
prevent any steam or water passing to valve C, which 
can readily be removed. 




Ex t er/'o r //e*9. 




fnter/ or V/enr. 

PLATE 19 
NEW TYPE GAUGE-COCKS 

When the necessary repairs have been completed, re- 
place valve C, loosen up on the coupling nut and adjust 
the squares so that the letters OO are in line with each 
other. The gauge-cock can then be operated in the usual 
way. This type of gauge is also provided with a rubber 
central valve-seat, which tends to keep the cock per- 



WATER-GLASS GAUGE. 91 

fectly tight and can be renewed, when necessary, in the 
manner previously described. Plate 19 shows the 
method of construction which contains these features. 

WATER-GLASS GAUGE-COCKS. 

Construction. Plate 20 shows an interior view of the 
water-glass gauge-cocks and glass, as they are attached 
to the boiler. This water-gauge consists of two elbow 
valves, 1 and 2, communicating with each other by means 
of water-glass 3. The exterior diameter of this water- 
glass is usually about five-eighths of an inch and the 
thickness of the glass is one-eighth of an inch ; its length 
varies from eight to fifteen inches. 

When the water-glass is placed in the elbow valves, 
1 and 2, the joints at both ends are made steam-tight by 
the use of rubber rings or gaskets, which are pressed 
tightly around the glass by means of packing nuts 4 and 
5. Each elbow is provided with a valve, 6 and 7, which 
enables the engineman to close the valves, shutting off 
the steam and water from the boiler, in the event the 
water-glass breaks (which is a common occurrence). 
The lower elbow or valve is provided with a blow-off 
cock, 8, through which any sediment or dirt which may 
collect in the glass can be blown out. When the valves 
6 and 7 are opened the steam flows into the water-glass 
through the upper valve, and water through the lower 
valve, which assumes a position in the water-glass indi- 
cating the level of the water in the boiler. 

If the upper water-glass cock should become stopped 
up or valve closed, the steam will be shut off from the 
upper end of the glass. The pressure on the water in the 
boiler will force the water in the glass upward until the 
glass is filled, and it will remain in this position, 
indicating a full glass of water, until the water in the 
boiler is reduced below the lower water-glass cock, at 



9 2 



WATER-GLASS GAUGE. 



which time the water will flow into the boiler by its own 
weight. Should the water in the boiler be reduced to the 
extent that it would allow the water to flow from the 
water-glass, the indication would be that the water was 
below the level of the crown-sheet, exposing it to the 
fire and causing it to become overheated. 

How to Clean Out Water-Glass Cocks. The water- 
glass cocks which may have become wholly or partially 





7 



rS 






PLATE 20. 
WATER GLASS GAUGE-COCKS AND GLASS 



WATER-GLASS GAUGE. 93 

clogged or stopped up, can sometimes be cleaned while 
the boiler is under steam. If the lower cock should be- 
come clogged, close the upper cock and open the blow-off 
cock, if one is attached. If not, remove the bottom nut 
on the lower cock, which will allow boiler pressure 
against the obstruction. There being no pressure on the 
opposite side of the obstruction, the boiler pressure will 
usually blow it out. If the obstruction cannot be re- 
moved in this manner, it will be necessary to measure 
the height of water in the boiler by the gauge-cocks 
during the balance of the trip, and the obstructed 
gauge-cock repaired on arrival at the terminal, where 
it can be bored out after steam has been blown from 
the boiler. The upper cock should be treated in the 
same manner. 

Renewing Water-Glass. When putting in a water- 
glass, it is necessary to remove the gland nuts 4 and 5 
and the follower 9 and 10, and also all broken pieces of 
glass and gasket which may remain in the glands of the 
gauge-cocks. Plug 11 should then be removed, for the 
purpose of inserting the glass. New gaskets should al- 
ways be used, top and bottom, when renewing water- 
glass, and the follower nuts and glands carefully cleaned. 
A water-glass of the proper length is then inserted and 
forced to the bottom of the stuffing-box, so that no space 
is open between the bottom of the stuffing-box and the 
water-glass. After the necessary gaskets have been ap- 
plied, the gland will be forced against the gaskets and 
into the stuffing-box by gland nuts 4 and 5. The lower 
end of the water-glass should always be forced into place 
and held solid by the gaskets, gland and nut, before the 
upper end of the glass is made secure. This will prevent 
the gaskets and gland on the upper end of the glass 
from pulling the lower end of the glass off its seat, 
which would allow a space between the gaskets and 



94 WATER-GLASS GAUGE. 

lower end of the stuffing-box, and would allow the 
gaskets in the lower cock to be forced under the glass, 
causing it to become clogged. 

Care should be taken that the glands are screwed 
down just enough for the gaskets to make a steam-tight 
joint around the water-glass. If the glands are screwed 
down too rigidly, they are apt to produce a strain on the 
glass, which would cause it to break with a slight ex- 
pansion or contraction. Should a leakage occur at either 
end of the glass after renewal, screw the glands slightly 
until the leakage ceases. The engineman should always 
watch the water in the water-glass carefully, which will 
indicate any obstruction in either water-glass cock by the 
action of the water. The water-glass when both cocks 
are clear will permit the water to vibrate in the glass at 
all times when the engine is in motion, which is an indi- 
cation that the correct level of the water in the boiler is 
being shown. 

THE NATHAN REFLEX WATER-GAUGE 

Description and Operation. The reflex water-gauge 
(Plate 21 ) consists of a metallic casing, designed to 
withstand high pressures. This gauge can be attached 
to all classes of boilers. Into the casing of the reflex 
gauge is inserted an observation glass, measuring from 
one-half to five-eighths of an inch in thickness, which 
is of hard glass and will not fly to pieces even when sub- 
jected to sudden and marked changes of temperature. 
The observation glass of the reflex gauge is so arranged 
and shaped that it will reflect the light in that part of 
the gauge which contains the steam and will cause this 
part of the glass to become opaque and of a high luster. 
The light is not reflected in that part of the gauge con- 
taining the water, but passes in slight deflection to the 
rear of the gauge. The glass being transparent in this 



WATER-GLASS GAUGE. 



95 



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If H%fa 





PLATE 21. 
THE REFLEX WATER-GAUGE- KLINGERS PATENT 



96 WATER-GLASS GAUGE. 

part of the gauge, the water will appear of a dark color, 
similar to the background of the casing. 

When applying this gauge for the first time or after 
it has been removed for repairs, the bolts should be 
tightened uniformly as soon as the gauge becomes hot, 
in order that all slack which may be caused by expan- 
sion shall be taken up evenly. The tightening up of the 
loose parts should be repeated occasionally, as the ex- 
pansion and contraction will loosen the joints and cause 
them to leak, which must be prevented in order to keep 
the glass in good working condition. Bolts should never 
be tightened up singly but all bolts should be tightened 
uniformly. 

When a leak at any joint surrounding the gauge is 
started it should not be allowed to continue. The glass 
should be taken off immediately and the face joint of 
the frame thoroughly cleaned and the gasket renewed. 
Partly worn or ragged gaskets should never be used 
when replacing the gauge. If the gauge cannot receive 
attention as soon as a leak is noticed it should be closed 
and kept out of service until repairs are properly made, 
the engineman measuring the level of the water in the 
boiler with the gauge-cocks. Slight abrasions or cuts in 
the face joint glass will first be noticed on the steam end 
of the gauge. This defect can often be remedied by re- 
versing the glass ; that is, placing the defective end of 
the glass on the water end of the gauge, as a rule, will 
render the gauge serviceable for a number of trips. The 
chipping off of the edges or ends of the glass is of no 
importance so long as the face joints are in good con- 
dition. 

The gauge should be blown out frequently in order to 
clear it of mud or other foreign matter, which would 
have an injurious effect on the packing and glass, as 
well as interfering with the proper operation of the 
gauge. 



97 
THE BLOW-OFF VALVE. 

Construction and Operation. Plate 22 shows the 
Hancock pneumatic blow-off valve, consisting of brass 
cage 1 (Fig. 2), which has a piston 5 upon which the 
air acts to open the valve. The blow-off part of this 
valve consists of two valves, 8 and 10. Intermediate 
valve 8 is connected to the piston by a stem 3 and col- 
lar, which can be opened or closed by hand by means 
of handle 2. It also possesses the additional safety 
feature of an independent valve 10, which, in the 
event of an accident which would cause the outer 
casing to be broken, would retain the boiler pressure. 
This feature also permits the valve or outer casing 1 to 
be taken out for the purpose of repairs to intermediate 
valve 8 or piston 5, without draining the water out of 
the boiler. Also if the independent valve 10 fails to 
seat, the intermediate valve 8, which is fastened to air 
piston 5 by stem 3, will then seat and prevent the 
boiler from being drained. If the independent valve 10 
and intermediate valve 8 fail to seat, a provision is 
made in the valve by which intermediate valve 8 can 
be forced to its seat by means of screw plug 2, which 
is attached to air piston 5. In the normal position of 
screw, plug 2, the threads of the screw plug are flush 
with the thread box in casing 1, which is shown on 
Plate 22. 

The blow-off cock is operated by air, having a pipe 
connection 14 extending from the blow-off cock to the 
cab, which admits air to piston 5, forcing the piston in- 
ward and compressing spring 6, unseating intermediate 
valve 8 and forcing independent valve 10 from its seat 
against boiler pressure, which allows the waste water to 
pass by boiler check and intermediate valve 8, through 
waste-pipe 13 to the atmosphere. 

To close the blow-off cock the air-valve between the 



98 



BLOW-OFF VALVE. 




Plate 22, Figure I 

HANCOCK.MGUMATIC BLOW-OFF VALVE 



BLOW-OFF VALVE. 



99 




FIG. 2— PLATE 22. 
HANCOCK PNEUMATIC BLOW-OFF VALVE 



Lore 



ioo BLOW-OFF VALVE. 

main drum and blow-off cock is closed, which allows the 
air to return through the same pipe into which it entered 
to the blow-off cock, and through vent port in the cut-out 
cock, to the atmosphere. The boiler pressure, forcing 
against independent valve 10 and intermediate valve 
8, aided by spring 6, forces the valves to their seats. 

The blow-off cocks are usually located near the bot- 
tom of the water-leg. Their purpose is to permit blow- 
ing out of sediment and impurities from the boiler. 

When operating the blow-off cock it should never be 
kept open to exceed 5 or 10 seconds at a time. It should 
then be closed for short periods. The outward rush of 
water being checked, a whirling action of the water is 
produced, which tends to loosen up the mud and sediment 
which had settled on the tubes, shell of the boiler and in 
the water-leg. After an interval of from 5 to 10 seconds 
the valve should again be opened. This action should be 
repeated until the necessary amount of water has been 
drawn from the boiler. The injector should not be 
worked when the blow-off cock is in use, as the fresh 
water entering the boiler at the check tends to flow back- 
ward. The lower temperature of the water causes it to 
settle to the bottom, which would result in the fresh 
water being drawn from the boiler, instead of the foul 
water which is intended to be drawn out. An additional 
reason why the injector should not be worked when the 
blow-off cock is in use is that the constant influx of a 
large quantity of cold water would cause the boiler to 
cool too rapidly, causing damage to flues, crown-sheets 
and stay-bolts. 

Failure of the Blow-Off Valve to Close. If the blow- 
off cock should fail to seat or close when the air is shut 
off, it can be closed by screwing in plug 2, which forces 
the intermediate valve 8 and independent valve 10 fur- 
ther off their seats, which would tend to allow the ob- 



BLOW-OFF VALVE. 101 

struction in the valve to be removed by the outrush of 
water. The movement outward on screw plug 2 would 
force intermediate valve 8 to its seat, and the boiler pres- 
sure would then force the independent valve 10 to its 
seat, thus closing the outlet. 

DEFECTS OF THE BLOW-OFF VALVE. 

When the blow-off cock opens and closes while air 
is being admitted to the piston, the trouble is usually 
due to badly worn stem 3, which allows the steam and 
water to pass into spring chamber A. The area of 
piston 5 being equal, the aid of spring 6 and the boiler 
pressure acting on independent valve 10 and interme- 
diate valve 8, these valves are forced to their seats. The 
vent port B in spring chamber A vents the steam and the 
water to the atmosphere. The air pressure on piston 5 
opens the blow-off cock again and the operation is re- 
peated. When the blow-off cock, after being opened, 
closes and will not again open until the air is shut off 
and again applied, the trouble may be due to the packing 
rings 7 being badly worn and the vent port B stopped 
up. The pressure on both sides of piston 5 would 
equalize, and, with the aid of spring 6 and the boiler pres- 
sure, the blow-off cock would close. The trouble also 
may be caused by a bad leak in the air-pipe connection 
to the blow-off cock. When the air is admitted the 
sudden inrush of air would strike piston 5, causing the 
blow-off cock to open. The leakage of air from the pipe 
would gradually reduce the pressure until the blow-off 
cock closed automatically. 

When air is admitted to piston 5 and the blow-off 
cock fails to open, the trouble may be due to screw plug 
2 being set too far outward or piston' 5 stuck fast in the 
bushing or badly limed up between the intermediate 
valve 8 and independent valve 10. In freezing weather 
the waste-pipe may have become frozen. 



102 



LEACH "A" AND "E" SINGLE AND 
DOUBLE SANDERS. 

Construction and Purpose. Air sanders are used for 
the purpose of forcing the supply of sand to the rail 
under the driving-wheel of the locomotive by means of 
compressed air, in order to prevent the slipping of 
the drivers. Pneumatic track sanders are now adopted 
as a part of the necessary equipment for the mod- 
ern locomotives. The principal feature of the air 
sander is the economical use of sand. Its efficiency is 
superior to the old style lever sander. The ordinary 
lever sander arrangement is at times difficult to operate 
and is also wasteful, in addition to causing unnecessary 
wear of tires and train resistance, by reason of too 
heavy an application of sand on the rails. 

There are several types of air sanders in use which 
operate practically on the same principle. The Leach 
sander being the one in most general use, the illustra- 
tions will refer to the Leach sander only. 

The sand used in the air sander should be carefully 
screened, clean and dry. All joints and connections should 
be kept in good condition to prevent moisture being ad- 
mitted to the sand. 

Plate 23 shows a Leach "A" single sander attached 
to a sand dome and its pipe connections. Plate 24 shows 
an interior view of the Leach "A" type, with the names 
of the parts given on the cut. Plate 25 shows a Leach 
"A" double sander connected to sand dome and pipe 
connections. Plate 26 shows an interior view of a Leach 
"A" double sand trap with the names of the parts shown 
on the cut. 

The trap receives its supply of sand through an aux- 
iliary passage which is always open and delivers the 
sand into the sand pipe as is required by means of an 



AIR SANDERS. 



103 




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104 



AIR SANDERS. 




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AIR SANDERS. 105 

air blast. The application of the air sander does not in- 
terfere with the arrangement or operation of the hand 
sand lever in any manner. Suitable arrangements and 
openings are provided in the trap for the removal of 
wet sand, gravel or other obstructions which may have 
become lodged in the trap. The air used for the oper- 
ation of the air sander is obtained directly from the main 
drum, the supply being controlled by a suitable valve 
placed in the cab within convenient reach of the engine- 
man. The air-pipe conveying the air to the trap is usu- 
ally placed under the boiler jacket. The heat from the 
boiler aids in taking the moisture from the air before 
entering the sander. 

Operation. To operate the air sander, air is admit- 
ted to the sand trap, in which is placed an air nozzle for 
the purpose of regulating the pressure and the sand 
delivery. The air nozzle is so constructed as to permit 
the proper amount of air to be forced through the sand 
pipes to the rail. The adjustment of the feed is a new 
feature in the air sander, as the pressure of but a few 
pounds at the nozzle is required for light feeding. A 
higher pressure would result in the waste of air and 
sand. 

To Prevent the Unnecessary Waste of Air and Sand. 
In order to prevent the air-valve from being overlooked 
by the engineman or allowed to remain open longer than 
is necessary, a device, known as a "warning port," is 
provided in the valve or handwheel, which sounds a 
warning at all times when the valve is open, unless pre- 
vented from sounding by the closing of the small 
valve provided for that purpose. If the hand is removed 
from the valve, the feed continues and the warning port 
continues to sound until the valve is closed. 



io6 



AIR SANDERS. 




AIR SANDERS. 



107 




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io8 AIR SANDERS. 

LEACH "E" DOUBLE SANDER. 

Plate 27 -shows the Leach "E" double sander as 
attached to the sand-box, with the pipe connections 
and sand trap located below the running board. The 
plate also shows the adjustable nozzle with the check- 
valve. Plate 28 is a diagrammatic view of the Leach 
"E" sander as applied to the locomotive. It is lo- 
cated outside of the sand-box and accessible at all 
times for inspection or repairs when necessary. The 
engineman and shopman can easily observe and un- 
derstand its operation and easily remedy any de- 
fects which may exist. The resistance of the volume of 
sand which is always above the trap prevents the air 
pressure from escaping upward through the sand-box to 
the atmosphere. Consequently a high pressure is avail- 
able through the discharge pipe for removing obstruc- 
tions at its lower end. 

The adjustable air nozzle used with this type of 
sander can be so adjusted that it will regulate the amount 
of sand discharged to the rail. The nozzle is also fitted 
with a small check-valve which prevents the air passages 
from becoming clogged with sand. The discharge pipe 
is bent upward at an angle of about 45 ° to prevent the 
sand from working out of the trap when the engine is 
in motion. A cleaning plug 2 is placed in the lower part 
of the trap for the purpose of removing wet sand or any 
other obstruction which may lodge in the trap. 

Regulation of Sand Delivered. To regulate the 
amount of sand to be delivered to the rail it is necessary 
to increase or decrease the space 3 between the end of 
the nozzle and the discharge pipe, by loosening jam nut 
4 and moving the adjusting nozzle 5 inward or outward 
as desired. The greater the distance between the nozzle 
and discharge pipe 3, the greater amount of sand will be 
delivered. 



AIR SANDERS. 



109 




Plate 27 

LEACH "E" DOUBLE SANDER 



no AIR SANDERS.. 

Care should be taken to adjust the nozzles on the 
opposite sides of the engine to correspond with each 
other, in order that the volume of sand delivered to the 
rails on each side of the engine will be equal. 

When more than one delivery pipe is connected to a 
single trap, provisions are made for preventing the sand 
and air from escaping through the channel with the least 
resistance. This is prevented by the construction of a 
trap with a separate compartment for each delivery pipe 
and having a column of sand in each compartment so 
that the air and sand in one trap cannot cross from one 
to the other. 

Care of Delivery Pipes. Care should be taken to 
clamp the delivery pipes rigidly at the bottom. The 
pipes should be bent at an angle so that the sand will be 
delivered directly to the point of contact between the 
driving wheels and the rails. 

DEFECTS OF THE AIR SANDER. 

If the sand fails to appear at the sand-pipe after 
the air has been admitted, it should first be ascer- 
tained whether or not there is sand in the sand-box. If 
the supply of sand is sufficient, the trouble may be 
due to the delivery pipe becoming clogged, a trap 
stopped up, a leak in the air-pipe preventing the air 
from reaching the trap, or the adjusting nozzle be- 
coming clogged. 

To locate the trouble, first open the air-valve in the 
cab, noting whether or not air is escaping from the de- 
livery pipe. If so, it indicates that the pipe is clogged 
in the dome. Plug 6 should then be removed and a wire 
inserted to remove the obstruction. If no air appears 
at the delivery pipe it indicates that the trap is clogged, 
there is a leak in the air-pipe, or a clogged nozzle. To 
determine whether or not the air is admitted to the sand 



AIR SANDERS. 



in 




112 AUTOMATIC BELL-RINGER. 

trap, thumbscrew or plug 7 should be removed. If a 
full blast of air escapes from the opening, it indicates 
that the air has reached the trap. Plug 2 should then be 
removed and the trap thoroughly cleaned, and the air 
again turned on. Care should be taken to observe as to 
whether the air passes through nozzle 5. When dry 
sand appears at the trap, plug 2 can again be replaced. 
If the delivery pipe is clogged, it can be opened by tap- 
ping it lightly with a hammer. In freezing weather it 
may be frozen, under which circumstances it would be 
necessary to thaw it out before sand could be admitted 
to the rails. 

THE GOLLMAR AUTOMATIC BELL- 
RINGER. 

Construction and Operation. An automatic bell-ringer 
is one which is operated by compressed air. Fig. 1, 
Plate 29, shows the interior view of the automatic bell- 
ringer and Fig. 2 the manner in which it is attached to 
the bell. 

There are two openings into the cylinder, the upper 
being the inlet, the lower the exhaust port B. Air pres- 
sure is admitted through the upper opening A. The 
operation of valve 43 through which a hole is drilled, 
admits the pressure under the single acting piston 39, 
which has a stroke of 1% inches when at its extreme 
travel. Crank 31 has a stroke of 4 inches. The con- 
necting rod is in two sections, 35 and 36, which will allow 
crank 31 to make a complete revolution without causing 
piston 39 to move. 

When the ringer is started to work, piston 39 will be 
driven upward, causing the bell to swing. Valve-stem 
42 will raise valve 43, closing the inlet port and using 
the pressure expansively by traveling the length of the 
lap before it will open the exhaust port. The bell having 



AUTOMATIC BELL-RINGER. in 





FIG. 2— PLATE 29. 



FIG. 1— PLATE 29. 

GOLLMAR BELL RINGER. 



ii4 AUTOMATIC BELL-RINGER. 

received an impulse, will continue its motion after 
piston 39 has reached the upper end of its stroke, the 
crank box 35 sliding on rod 36. The impulse which the 
bell received being expended, it will return to its normal 
position by its own weight; the governor bolt 33 will 
strike the end of rod 36, which will force piston 39 
downward, coming in direct contact with valve 43, and 
closing the exhaust port and opening the inlet port, 
after cushioning on the pressure remaining under 
piston 39, after the exhaust is closed. It will be noted 
that valve 43 is operated only at the termination of the 
piston stroke. 

This bell-ringer can be adjusted to use pressure in 
proportion to the stroke required. The adjustments are 
made by means of valve-stem 42, which is secured in its 
various positions by a pin. No change in the length 
of the connecting rod is required in changing the adjust- 
ment. The valve adjuster 44 and spring 45 are adjusted 
in such a manner as to keep valve 43 in contact with the 
side of the cylinder in which the inlet and exhaust ports 
are placed, so that there can be no leakage from one to 
the other, and a positive cut-off is assured. 

DEFECTS OF THE BELL-RINGER. 

When air is admitted to the bell-ringer and the 
valve fails to start, it may be caused by the admission 
port being stopped up; the valve not having sufficient 
lift; crank 31 may be on the dead-center, which would 
prevent piston 39 from being forced upward and exert- 
ing its power on the bell; packing rings 41 may be 
broken, which will allow the air to escape to the at- 
mosphere as fast as it is admitted to the cylinder; 
too great or not enough lift between the upper piston 
39 and lower valve 43 ; the bell-crank may have become 



AUTOMATIC BELL-RINGER. 115 

loosened on the shaft, or the parts may be improperly 
adjusted. 

When the piston raises and lowers a number of times 
during the stroke of the bell, it is caused by badly worn 
packing rings 41, which allows piston 39 to drop, and 
striking the lower valve, causes it to move down. This 
movement again admits air to piston 39 before the bell 
has returned to its normal position. When the bell con- 
tinues to make complete revolutions when in operation, 
it would indicate improper adjustment of the governor. 
To remedy this defect, slack off on governor bolt 33, 
until the bell will make its stroke properly without re- 
volving. Then tighten jam nut 34. 

When the air is admitted to the bell-ringer and there 
is not enough force or power to move the bell upward, 
slack off on jam nut 34 and screw down on governor 
bolt 33. This operation will lengthen the rod, and, if 
it is not sufficient to cause the bell to move, will lengthen 
valve-stem 42. This will give piston 39 additional power 
to lift the bell before the air supply is cut off. 



n6 



LOCOMOTIVE LUBRICATORS. 



NATHAN TRIPLE SIGHT FEED LUBRI- 
CATORS. 





List of 


Parts 




I 


Condenser 


io-a 


Upper Sight Bracket 


2 


Filling Plug 




(Air-Brake) 


3 


Auxiliary Oiler (Cyl- 


ii 


Lower Sight Bracket 




inder) 




(Cylinder) 


1% 


Auxiliary Oiler (Air- 


n-a 


Lower Sight Bracket 




Brake) 




(Air-Brake) 


4 


Safety-Valve 


n-b 


Sight Glass Packing 


5 


Reducing Plug 




Nut 


5-a 


Blow-Off Plug 


12 


Body 


6 


Delivery Nut and 


13 


Gauge-Glass Plug 




Tailpiece (Cylin- 


14 


Gauge-Glass 




der) 


15 


Upper Gauge Bracket 


6-a 


Delivery Nut and 


i6 


Lower Gauge Bracket 




Tailpiece (Air- 


*7 


Waste Cock 




Brake) 


18 


Regulating Valve 


7 


Water-Valve 


19 


Bottom Plug 


8 


Stud Nut 


20 


Top Connection 


9 


Sight Feed Glass 


21 


Equalizing Pipe 


9-a 


Feed Nozzle 


22 


Oil Pipe 


o 


Upper Sight Bracket 


23 


Water Pipe 




(Cylinder) 


24 


Center Body Plug 


Construction and Operation. 


Fig. 1, Plate 30, shows 



a front view of a Nathan Triple Sight Feed Lubricator. 
Fig. 2 shows a side view, and also the manner in which 
the lubricator is fastened to the boiler head bracket by 
nut K. E is the condenser to which steam is conducted 
by the copper tube G, leading either from the dome or the 
top of the boiler and connected to a dry pipe leading to 
the dome. B (Fig. 2) is a steam valve for controlling 
the supply of steam to the lubricator ; A is the filling plug, 



LOCOMOTIVE LUBRICATORS. 



117 



which is removed when the lubricator is filled. Auxiliary 
oiler O is provided for each cylinder, independent of the 
lubricator, and can be used to carry the oil to the cylinder 
if the feed glass breaks or other defects exist in the lubri- 
cator which would cause it to become inoperative. Each 




FIG. 1— PLATE 30. 

sight feed glass J is provided with a safety-valve F, so 
that if the feed glass breaks, the safety-valve F and the 
regulating valve C can be closed to prevent the oil and 
steam from escaping. HH are the oil pipes leading from 
the oil outlets of the lubricator to the right and left cyl- 
inder and steam-chest; I is the oil pipe leading to the 
steam end of the air-pump ; D is the water-valve which 
controls the passage from the condenser E to the oil reser- 
voir 12 (Plate 31, Fig. 2) ; 14 is the glass-gauge which 
registers the amount of oil and water in the lubricator; 
W is the waste cock for drawing off the water from the 



n8 



LOCOMOTIVE LUBRICATORS. 



oil reservoir ; CC are the regulating valves for regulating 
the supply of oil to the valves. 

Four sectional views are shown in Plate 31. Fig. 1 
shows a front section ; Fig. 2, a side view ; Fig. 3, a par- 




■ SIDE VIEW. 
A. Filling Plug. B. Steam Valve. C. C. C. Regulating Valve's. 

F. F.F. Safety Valves. O. O. O. Auxiliary Oilers. W. Waste Cock. 

FIG. 2— PLATE 30. 



LOCOMOTIVE LUBRICATORS. 



119 



tial side view and Fig. 4 a top sectional view. Inside of 
the condenser are three equalizing tubes 21 (Figs. 1 and 
4), two for the cylinders and one for the air-pump. These 
tubes are open on the top and the lower end of each is 



3 S 




FIG. 1-PLATE 31. 

connected to a passageway leading to the sight feed 
glasses. 

The steam passes through these equalizing tubes and 
maintains a uniform pressure on the water in the sight 



120 



LOCOMOTIVE LUBRICATORS. 



feed glasses. Any surplus water in. the condenser is free 
to pass through the equalizing tubes to the sight feed 
glasses, thus filling them up with water. The condenser 




FIG. 2— PLATE 31. 

is connected with the oil reservoir (Fig. i) through a pas- 
sage and water-valve 7 and water-tube 23. The lower 
end of this tube opens into a pocket in the bottom of the 
oil reservoir, as shown in Fig. 2. When the water is 



LOCOMOTIVE LUBRICATORS. 



121 



drawn off through cock 17, this pocket remains full of 
water. As the lower end of tube 23 is below the sur- 
face of the water in the pocket, the oil cannot rise in the 

STEAM 




FIG. 3— PLATE 31. 

tube when the reservoir is being filled. An additional 
pocket known as the air pocket is situated in the upper 
part of the oil reservoir (Fig. 2). 

When the reservoir is being filled, the oil rises until it 



122 



LOCOMOTIVE LUBRICATORS. 



reaches the bottom of the pocket, and the air which is en- 
trapped in the pocket prevents the oil from occupying 
that space when the reservoir is filled, which allows for 
the expansion of the oil after it becomes heated. If this 
air space were not provided, and the water-valve and reg- 
ulating valve were closed, the force exerted by the expan- 
sion of the heated oil would be sufficient to bulge or burst 
the reservoir. 




TO ALR BRAKE . 
FIG. 4— PLATE. 31. 

Oil tube 22 is open at the top and is in communication 
with reservoir 12. The lower end of oil tube 22 is con- 
nected with the oil passages which lead to the under sides 
of each of the regulating valves 18. The oil tube and 
passages are filled with oil as long as there is any oil 
remaining in the reservoir. 



LOCOMOTIVE LUBRICATORS. 123 

Condenser I is about two-thirds full of water when 
the lubricator is in operation ; all surplus water from con- 
densation passes out tfrrough the steam tubes to the oil 
pipes. Also when water-valve 7 is open, the water can 
pass down through a passage past valve 7 and down 
tube 23 to the bottom of the oil reservoir. 

The oil floats on the surface of the water and is forced 
by the weight of the water and the pressure of the steam 
acting upon it in the condenser, upward, and then down 
oil tube 22 and into the passages leading to regulating 
feeds 18. Steam and water continue to flow down equal- 
izing tubes 21 to the sight feed glasses 9 (Fig. 1), filling 
them with water. When regulating valve 18 is opened the 
oil forms in drops, passes through the water in the sight 
feed glasses 9 to the reducing plugs, and is there met by a 
jet of steam from the equalizing tubes, and the oil is 
forced through reducing plugs 5 and the oil pipe to the 
steam-chest. As fast as the oil escapes from the reser- 
voir its place is filled with the water from the condenser. 

Safety-valves 4 are for use only in case of the break- 
age of a feed glass. In this event safety-valve 4 and reg- 
ulating valve 18 should be closed. Auxiliary hand oiler 
3 can then be used until the broken glass can be renewed. 
The breakage of any one glass and the closing of the 
safety-valve and regulating valve 18 will not interfere 
with the operation of the other feeds. 

Both steam valve B (Fig. 2, Plate 30) and water-valve 
7 (Fig. 3, Plate 31) should always be opened before a 
locomotive leaves the roundhouse, whether the feeds are 
in operation or not. This will serve as an additional pre- 
caution against the expansion of the oil endangering the 
reservoir. If water-valve 7 is open, the oil will pass up 
into the water-tube 23 and into condenser 1, and pre- 
vent any possibility of damage to the lubricator if the 
reservoir were too full of oil. 



i2 4 LOCOMOTIVE LUBRICATORS. 

Steam valve B is the first valve to be opened when 
starting, and the last one to be closed when shutting off 
the lubricator. To start the feeds, regulating valve 18 
should be opened and regulated until the desired number 
of drops per minute are being fed to meet the require- 
ments of the valves. 

The oil reservoir and the sight feeds should be blown 
out at least once a week. To clean the lubricator and 
sight glasses the regulating valves should be opened wide, 
after which the water-valve, steam valve and drain plug 
17 should also be opened. This will allow the sediment in 
the feed glasses and the passages to be blown into the 
body of the lubricator and thence out through drain 
plug 17. i 

DEFECTS AND REMEDIES. 

If one of the feed valves becomes stopped up, it should 
be cleaned out by closing the regulating valves on the 
other feeds, and also closing water-valve 7. Then open 
drain cock 17 and allow some of the water to be drained 
off to make room for the oil in the passages, and the 
water in the sight feed glass to be forced into the oil 
reservoir, permitting the sediment to settle to the bot- 
tom of the reservoir. This will eliminate the necessity 
of entirely draining the reservoir of its contents. The 
regulating valve should be closed until the feed glass is 
filled with water, after which the feed will work properly. 
As soon as the drain cock is closed, the water-valve 
should be opened and the other feeds may then be 
started. 

To put in a new lubricator glass when one has been 
broken, all valves should be shut off and the lubricator 
drained. Remove the upper side bracket and nut 10. 
The broken parts of the glass and old gaskets should then 
be removed, and new gaskets inserted. Replace the side 



LOCOMOTIVE LUBRICATORS. 125 

bracket and nuts sufficiently to hold them, and then insert 
a new glass of the proper length, forcing it down to its 
place by the aid of a piece of wood. The lower nut 
should first be tightened, the upper nut then tightened 
and gauge-glass plug 13 replaced. 

BULL'S EYE LUBRICATORS. 

It was long ago realized that in the design of all lubri- 
cators in use up to a recent date there were certain in- 
herent defects which it was necessary to remove before a 
satisfactory solution of the lubricator question could be 
reached. f 

With the increased steam pressure used on modern 
locomotives conditions arose which proved that the lu- 
bricators then in use were practically unfit for the service 
for which they were intended. This was evidenced by 
the breaking of glasses, resulting in injuries to engine- 
men, cutting valves, failure to make time schedules, leaky 
joints, increased cost of maintenance, and other troubles 
of such variety as to affect the successful operation of the 
locomotive. 

By careful study of the entire situation, as well as of 
the lubricator then in use, it became evident that a radi- 
cal change in the construction of the lubricator was im- 
perative. In making the changes in the old style lubri- 
cator it was apparent that the danger and defects should 
be eliminated. The changes made have been the result 
of careful and thoughtful study and have produced the 
"Bull's Eye" pattern of the lubricator. 

NATHAN TRIPLE SIGHT FEED "BULL'S 
EYE" LUBRICATOR. 

List of Parts. 

1. Condenser 15. Regulating Valve 

2. Filling Plug 16. Top Connection 



126 



LOCOMOTIVE LUBRICATORS. 



3- 


Hand Oiler 


17. 


Equalizing Pipe 


5- 


Reducing Plug 


18. 


Oil Pipe 


6. 


Delivery Nut and 


19. 


Water Pipe 




Tailpiece. 


20. 


Sight Feed Drain 


7. 


Water- Valve 




Valve 


8. 


Stud Nut 


21. 


Reserve Glass and 


9- 


Sight Feed Glass and 




Casing. 




Casing. 


22. 


Cleaning Plug 


9-s 


l. Feed Nozzle. 


23- 


Body Plug 


11. 


Body 


24. 


Oil Pipe Plug 


13. 


Gauge-Glass and Cas- 


28. 


Gauge-Glass Bracket 




ing. 


29. 


Cleaning Plug 


14. 


Waste Cock 


30. 


Gauge-Glass Cap 




c c 

FRONT VIEW. 

FIG. 1— PLATE 33. 



LOCOMOTIVE LUBRICATORS. 



127 



Construction and Operation. Plate 32 shows a front 
view and Plate 33 sectional views of the modern ' 'Bull's 
Eye" lubricator, Nathan type. This instrument is made 
to withstand the increased steam pressures used on mod- 




P¥a 



Bk r dzu 24 en 



or 

mm mm mSm 

FIG. 2-PLATE 33. 
ern locomotives, and it may be safely relied upon under 
all conditions of service. Instead of the tubular glasses 
heretofore used, this type of lubricator is equipped with 



128 



LOCOMOTIVE LUBRICATORS. 



a new form of disk glass, which will not break under any 
condition of service. All the danger to enginemen and 
delays to trains resulting from the breaking of glasses 

STEAM 



TO AIR BRAKE 




FIG. 3— PLATE 33. 

in service have been eliminated. The construction has 
also been simplified in other ways. There are no brackets 
to become loose, causing bad leakage and breakage of 



LOCOMOTIVE LUBRICATORS. 



129 



glasses. The lubricator also carries a reserve glass packed 
in a casing provided for that purpose in front of the lu- 
bricator, ready for use when needed. All glasses are 
packed in casings, which screw into the body of the lu- 
bricator, making their removal for inspection or repairs 
more convenient than with other styles. 

The cylinder oil outlets of this lubricator are pro- 
vided with reducing plugs 5, of a specified bore, the im- 



ce 


LU 


cc 


LU 


* 


ID 


Q 


< 


O 


Z 


DC 


z 


_J 


00 


_J 


> 


CC 


> 


O 


< 





O 

h- 


O 




(- 




FIG. 4— PLATE 33. 

portance of which lies in the relative proportion of their 
interior diameter to the reduced openings at the steam- 
chest. The oil pipe must be provided at its steam-chest 
connection with a choke of not less than three thirty-sec- 
onds, or more than one-eighth of an inch in diameter. 



i 3 o LOCOMOTIVE LUBRICATORS. 

The choke at the steam-chest is necessary for the proper 
operation of the lubricator. (Plate 33, Fig. 5.) 

How to Clean Lubricator. To clean the lubricator, 
water-valve 7 should be shut off, waste cock 14 opened, 
and the lubricator drained of its contents. All feeds 
should then be opened, cleaning plug 22 removed, and 
water-valve 7 and steam valve given their full opening. 
Steam would then pass down through equalizing tubes 17, 
forcing the contents out of the sight feed glass 9, through 
the feed nozzle 9-a and regulating valve 15, into the oil 
channel and through the opening of cleaning plug 22. 



OIL PIPE END -*► 



STEAM CHEST END- 




STEAM CHEST PLUG 



THIS BORE TO BE NOT LESS THAN 
3 / 32 " OR MORE THAN i/ 8 " DIAMETER 

FIG. 5— PLATE 33. 



To blow out oil pipe 18, all regulating valves 15 and 
waste cock 14 should be closed, and oil pipe plug 24 re- 
moved, which will allow the steam to pass directly 
through the oil pipe to the atmosphere. To blow out 
water pipe 19, body plug 23 should be removed and 
water-valve 7 opened. To clean the gauge-glass, remove 
cleaning plug 29 and open steam valve and water-valve 
7. To clean reducing plug 5, or a sight feed glass which 
has become filled with sediment, regulating valve 15 
should be shut off, and 'the sight feed drain opened, 
which will allow the steam from the equalizing tube to 
remove all foreign matter. The same result may be ac- 
complished by opening the engine throttle, allowing steam 



LOCOMOTIVE LUBRICATORS. 



131 



to back up and through the reducing plugs 5, down and 
by the sight feed glass and out of drain valve 20. 

The manner of filling this lubricator and putting it 
into operation is the same as with other types of Nathan 
lubricators. 

Replacing Glasses. Replacing glasses is more easily 
accomplished with this type than with others. The fol- 






F ii 



F/J.2. 



PLATE 34. 



lower should first be removed, next the washer, and then 
the glass and gasket. When replacing the glass, the 
gasket should first be put in place, then the glass, and 
next the washer and the follower.. 

Fig. 1, Plate 34, shows a reserve glass packed in its 
casing ready for use when required. If a glass breaks 
the old casing should be removed and replaced by the 
extra one. After slightly tightening up the follower, the 
glass is ready for use. 

Fig. 2 shows packing, glass, washer and follower as 
they appear when put in their respective places in casing, 
shown in Fig. 1. 



132 LOCOMOTIVE LUBRICATORS. 

74. 10- 

76 
71 




W 

FIG. 1— PLATE 35. 

THE "CHICAGO" THREE-FEED LUBRICA- 
TOR, BULL'S EYE TYPE. 

List of Parts. 

4. Check- Valve 69. Packing Nut for 

6. Pipe Union Nut for Glass 

Steam-Chest Circu- 70. Follower RingandWash- 
lating Pipe er for Solid Glasses 



LOCOMOTIVE LUBRICATORS. 



133 



7. Pipe Union Nut for 71. 

Air-Pump Circulat- 72. 
ing Pipe ?3 

8. Steam Supply Union 

9. Steam Supply Nipple 

10. Cap Plug for Pipe T 75- 

23. Filler Plug 

24. Handle for Valve- 76. 

Stem 77. 

30. Feed Valve Packing 78. 

Nut 

31. Feed Valve 

33. Drain Valve 79. 

34. Drain Valve Plug for 80. 

Oil Bowl 

35. Tallow Pipe Union 81. 

36. Choke Plug for Air- 82. 

Pump Feed 

55. Cap for Steam-Chest 

Valve 83. 

56. Casing for Steam- 

Chest Valve 

57. Valve for Steam- 84. 

Chest Valve 

62. Pressure Valve and 

Nut 85. 

63. Cap Plug 

64. Pipe Plug 

65. Auxiliary Oil Cup 88. 

66. Auxiliary Oil Cup 

Filler Plug 89. 

67. Cap Plug 

68. Oil Pipe Bushing for 
Air-Pump Feed Sup- 
ply 



Condenser 

Oil Bowl 

Water- Valve Complete 

Pipe Connecting T 

Connecting Nut' for 
No. 74 

Ball Joint for No. 74 

Feed Valve Hub 

Auxiliary Oil Cup 
Feed Valve Com- 
plete 

Pressure Valve Hub 

Solid Glasses for Feed 
Pocket or Index 

Feed Tip 

Circulating Pipe 
Complete for Air- 
Pump 

Circulating Pipe Com- 
plete for Steam- 

" Chest 

Pipe Hub Air-Pump 
and Low Pressure 
Circulating Pipes 

Pipe Hub for Steam- 
Chest Circulating 
Pipe 

Auxiliary Oil Cup 
Drain Valve 

Gaskets for Solid 
Glasses 



134 



LOCOMOTIVE LUBRICATORS. 




FIG. 2— PLATE 35. 

Construction and Operation. Plate 35 shows two 
sectional views of the "Chicago" three-feed lubricator 
"Bull's Eye" type. The feeds are independent of each 
other ; any one of them may be shut off to renew gaskets 
or make other repairs without interfering with the other 
feeds, by closing pressure valve 62 and feed valve 31 and 
opening drain valve 33. 

The oil supply for each feed valve is separate, dis- 



LOCOMOTIVE LUBRICATORS. 135 

pensing with the one oil pocket for all feeds which is 
usually found on other lubricators. There are no inside 
pipes to leak or get out of order by reason of sand holes 
and other defects in the casing. All pipes for steam cir- 
culation are placed outside and convenient for repairs in 
case of steam leaks or other defects. 

The arrangement of pipes shown in Figs. 1 and 2, 
Plate 35, is such that an intense heat is never produced in 
the condenser. This prevents any loss of the lubricating 
properties of the oil, which would occur if the oil were 
heated to a high temperature. 

Pressure valves are used to protect the engine crew in 
the event of a broken glass or of a gasket blowing out. 
The oil is delivered to the engine valves regularly under 
all conditions of service or steam pressure. 

The feed is regular at all times and under all condi- 
tions and will not vary unless there is an obstruction in 
the pipes or passages of the lubricator. It will not siphon 
the oil out of the lubricator, this feature being prevented 
by check-valve 4, which is interposed between the steam 
supply and the condenser. 

The auxiliary oil cup 65 is a pressure cup and is in 
direct connection with the oil pipe through the upper feed 
arm and over the seat made by pressure valve 62, and 
can be filled and operated without closing the engine 
throttle or the lubricator steam valve. 

The five-feed lubricator is especially designed for use 
on balanced compound and other compounds where more 
than three feeds are required. It is equipped with five 
oil pipe connections and feeds and occupies only the space 
required for a three-feed lubricator. 



136 



LOCOMOTIVE LUBRICATORS. 



DETROIT No. 21 LOCOMOTIVE LUB- 
RICATOR, BULL'S EYE TYPE. 

List of Parts. 



1041 


1 -inch Tailpiece 


2240 


Gauge-Glass Reflec- 


1314 


Feed Stem Ring 




tor 


1618 


Steam Valve Pack- 


2241 


Drain Valve Body 




ing Nut 


2246 


Steam Valve-Stem 


1621 


Steam Valve Disk 


2247 


Feed Valve Center 




Lock-Nut 




Piece 


1623 


Steam Valve Gland 


2249 


Tallow Pipe Center 


1754 


1 -inch Tail Nut 




Piece 


2076 


Feed Valve Gland 


2251 


Condenser Plug 


2082 


Tailpiece 


2253 


Steam Valve Center 


2083 


Tail Nut 




Piece 


2084 


Vent Stems 


2254 


Steam Valve Disk 


2085 


Support Arm Jam 


2256 


Filler Plug 




Nut 


2261 


Feed Valve-Stem 


2087 


Feed Valve Stem 


2262 


Support Arm 




Nuts 


2264 


Sight Feed Glass 


2105 


Drain Stem 


2265 


Feed Glass Packing 


2107 


Steam - Chest Valve 




Ring 




Body 


2266 


Rubber Packing 


2108 


Steam - Chest Valve 


2267 


Feed Glass Washe* 




Cap 


2270 


Oil Tube 


2109 


Steam - Chest Valve 


2273 


Feed Nozzle 




Check 


2277 


Oil Tube Bushing 


2233 


Hand Oiler Packing 


2279 


Air-Brake Check 




Nut 


2280 


Check Seat 


2235 


Hand Oiler Body 


2284 


Regulating Valve 


2236 


Hand Oiler Stem 




Handle 


2237 


Hand Oiler Filler 


2285 


Hand Oiler Handle 




Plug 


2286 


Steam Valve Handle 


2238 


Water Check Stop 


2287 


Filler Handle 


223c 


1 11-16 Plugs 







LOCOMOTIVE LUBRICATORS. 137 




PLATE 36. 

Construction. The Detroit No. 21 lubricator is a 
"Bull's Eye" pattern instrument. It differs from lubri- 
cators of the old type in that it has a sight feed glass 
which will not break under any condition of service, and 
all danger of injury to enginemen and delays resulting 
from the bursting of lubricator glasses have been re- 
moved. 

The glass and its packing, as shown in Plate 41, are 
so designed and located as to prevent sudden and ex- 
treme changes in temperature in the lubricator, thus re- 
ducing the expansion and contraction to a minimum. The 
packing will neither vulcanize nor blow out. The metal 
formerly used in the arms, by-pass valves, etc., is now 



138 



LOCOMOTIVE LUBRICATORS. 



used in the metal line of the lubricator, its valve-stems 
and stuffing-boxes, giving additional strength and durabil- 
ity. The oil is maintained at a uniform temperature and 
will not chill. The feed is regular under all conditions- 
and all feeds are visible from two sides of the lubricator. 
An additional valve is placed on the top of the lubri- 
cator to control the supply of steam from the boiler, mak- 
ing the device self-regulating. 

List of Operating Parts. 



F. 


Condenser 


L. 


Feed Regulating 


A. 


Oil Reservoir 




Valve to Air- 


0. 


Filler Plug 




Pump 


G. 


Drain Valve 


WW. 


Couplings to Right 


TTT. 


Sight Feed Drain 




and Left -Hand 




Stems 




Cylinders 


D. 


Water Feed Plug 


R. 


Coupling to Air- 


B. 


Steam Valve 




Pump 


EE. 


Feed Regulating 


C. 


Steam Connection 




Valves to Right 


JJ. 


Auxiliary Oilers 




and Left - Hand 








Cylinders 








2082^ I 








PLATE 37. 



LOCOMOTIVE LUBRICATORS. 



139 



Operation. To fill the lubricator filler plug O, Plate 
36, should be removed and the reservoir filled with clean 
strained valve oil. If there is insufficient oil to fill the 
reservoir, add enough water to make up the required 
quantity. This will enable the feeds to start promptly. 
The boiler valve and steam valve B at the top of con- 
denser F must be kept wide open while the locomotive 
is in service. 




PLATE 38 

To start the lubricator it should first be ascertained 
that the boiler valve is open, after which steam valve B 
at the top of condenser F should be opened and allowed 
to remain open while the lubricator is in operation. 



140 



LOCOMOTIVE LUBRICATORS. 



Sufficient time should be allowed for the condenser 
and sight feed glasses to fill with water. Water-valve D 
should be opened immediately after the steam valve is 
opened. The flow of oil to the cylinders should be regu- 
lated by valves EE and to the air-pump by valve L. 

To operate the auxiliary oilers it should first be ascer- 
tained that valve H is closed. Valve X should then be 




PLATE 39. 

opened and the cup of the oiler filled. Valve X should be 
closed after filling and valve H opened. 

When refilling the lubricator, valves EE and L should 
always be closed before closing water-valve D. Drain 
plug G should be opened, and filling plug O removed. 

The lubricator should be blown out at least once a 
week, or oftener when necessary. 

In getting a new or a rebuilt locomotive ready for 
service, the oil pipes should be disconnected at the 
steam-chest, and the oil pipes and automatic steam- 
chest valves blown out thoroughly. The coupling to 



LOCOMOTIVE LUBRICATORS. 



141 



the air-pump should also be disconnected and blown 
out and the choke plugs must have a clear opening. 
This operation should be repeated several times while 
the locomotive is being prepared for service. 

The feed glass follower (Plate 41) should not be 



22&1 




PLATE 40. 



adjusted too tightly, as it would only serve to injure 
the packing. There is no danger of leakage at this 
point, as the glass and packing are so designed that 
the greater the pressure from the inside the closer the 
joint. 



142 LOCOMOTIVE LUBRICATORS. 




PLATE 41. 

Testing for Leaks. If the engineman has reason 
to believe that the oil is escaping through a sand hole 
leading to either of the steam-chests or the air-pump, 
the defect can be determined by the following test : 

The lubricator should be not less than two-thirds 
full of oil, and the full steam and water pressures used 
as in service. All vent stems, 2084, (Plate 37) leading 
to the sight feed glass chamber should be opened and 
all water allowed to escape and steam allowed to blow 
through the vents for a period of one minute. Any 
two of the vents should then be closed and the scoop 
shovel, which should be clean, held under the jet of 
steam coming from the vent stem. If there is a sand 
hole through any one of the oil outlet passages, the 
jet of steam will carry the oil downward and deposit 
it on the scoop. The same test should be repeated at 
the other vents. If no oil is deposited on the scoop, 
it indicates that there is no sand hole in the lubricator. 
Care should be taken that all oil is wiped off the feed 
regulating stems, nuts and center pieces before making 
these tests, or the steam would deposit this oil on the 
scoop, leading one to believe that it came from a sand 
hole. 



LOCOMOTIVE LUBRICATORS. 143 

The above precaution should be taken if the feeds 
are closed, and the test commenced immediately, as 
there would be. oil adhering to the passages and nuts 
above the sight feed chamber, which would be drawn 
down in a reversed direction by the current of steam 
escaping to the atmosphere through the vents, and 
which should not be confounded with the oil that 
would escape from a sand hole if there were one. A 
loose feed cone or a faulty seat would produce* the 
same result. This test should not be made imme- 
diately after a lubricator has been filled with oil, es- 
pecially if the oil is cold, as the expansion of the oil, 
if great enough, would force all of the water and prob- 
ably some of the oil back through the water passages 
into the condenser, after which the oil would be 
drawn down through the equalizing tubes into the feed 
chamber, and would show all the indications of a sand 
hole. 

Expansion of Oil. Oil taken at 60 degrees and 
heated to a temperature of 381 degrees will expand 
one-fifth in volume. It w r ill thus be seen that it is of 
the greatest importance that immediately after the lu- 
bricator has been filled, the water-valve should be 
opened to permit the expansion to be relieved through 
the water-tube and condenser. If the water-valve is 
not opened the intense pressure caused by the expand- 
ing oil is sometimes sufficient to destroy the body of 
the lubricator. Extreme pressure in the lubricator is 
indicated by a rush of oil from the feed cone the instant 
the feed stems are opened. The hotter the oil is be- 
fore it is put into the lubricator, the less expansion will 
occur. 

If the lubricator is hard to fill, without all pressures 
being shut off, the trouble is due to a leaky water-valve 
stem, which should be ground in, or exchanged for any 



144 LOCOMOTIVE LUBRICATORS. 

of the feed stems (Plate 37), which are all alike and in- 
terchangeable. 

Siphoning. If the feeds race, or feed faster when the 
locomotive is shut off and is drifting or at rest, than when 
the throttle is open, by reason of the choke becoming en- 
larged, it is usually considered by many enginemen that 
the lubricator is siphoning. If, on account of a loose 
steam cone, sediment gathers around the base of the feed 
cone, or a piece of glass lies against the cone, or the oil 
feeds out through capillary action, it is erroneously called 
"siphoning." If the water-tube in the old style .of lubri- 
cators and in some types of "Bull's Eye" lubricator be- 
came loose or cracked where it screwed in the condenser, 
or top of lubricator, and allowed the oil to transfer from 
the body of the lubricator to the condenser, it was also at- 
tributed to "siphoning." 

It is a well-defined law of physics that in order to 
cause siphonage it is first necessary to create a vacuum. 
The Detroit lubricator will siphon out the oil only under 
the following conditions : 

First : The lubricator must be full or partly filled with 
oil. Second : The steam valve on the boiler or top of the 
condenser must be closed and the water-valve to the lu- 
bricator open. Third : A vacuum must be created, and in 
order to create this vacuum the locomotive must be 
moved, the steam shut off and the locomotive allowed to 
drift. The cylinders are converted into air-pumps while 
drifting, and as a result a vacuum is formed in the oil 
pipes and lubricator condenser. Conditions are then fa- 
vorable for siphoning the oil out of the lubricator, pro- 
vided the water-valve is open, and there is no check in 
the water-tube or water passage and no scale or sediment 
above the check which would prevent.it from seating. If 
all of the conditions named existed at the same time, the 
oil could be siphoned out of the lubricator. 



LOCOMOTIVE LUBRICATORS. 145 

At times, enginemen open the water-valve before the 
steam valve, or close the steam valve before the water- 
valve, which is bad practice, as it places the lubricator in 
a favorable condition for siphoning out the oil if it is not 
protected by a check. 

Caution. Steam valve B (Plate 36) should always be 
opened first and water-valve D last when putting the lu- 
bricator to work. Water-valve D should be closed first 
and steam valve B last when shutting off the lubricator. 
If these instructions are followed the lubricator will never 
siphon, as a vacuum cannot be created in the condenser 
and oil pipes when steam pressure is admitted to the lu- 
bricator. 

HINTS ON THE CARE OF LUBRICA- 
TORS. 

All lubricators will give better results if cared for in- 
telligently than if neglected. 

If no precautions are taken to prevent it, the water 
passages will close up with sediment between the conden- 
ser and the oil reservoir as completely as if the water- 
valves were closed. 

All lubricators should be blown out at least once a 
week, and oftener in districts where the water is bad. 

The reservoir and the glasses may be kept clean by 
putting a piece of soap in the reservoir about once a week. 

Valve oil and engine oil should never be mixed and 
used in a lubricator, as the temperature of the lubricator 
is too high for engine oil, and would cause it to car- 
bonize, destroying the lubricating properties of the oil. 
Particles of carbonized engine oil have no greater lu- 
bricating properties than powdered charcoal. 

If the supply of valve oil is not sufficient to last un- 
til a terminal point is reached at the regular rate of feed, 
the feed should be decreased. The valves should not be 
wet and the engine should be run with a lighter throttle 



i 4 6 LOCOMOTIVE LUBRICATORS. 

and a longer cut-off, and should not be allowed to drift 
without the throttle being slightly opened. 

The chokes at the steam-chest are constantly being 
cut away by the action of the steam, and should be re- 
newed when sufficiently worn to affect the regularity of 
the feed. The chokes also act as a balance for the equal- 
izing of pressures. 

The steam valve on the boiler and the one on top of 
the condenser must be opened wide in order to counter- 
act the steam-chest pressures. 

The quantity of oil consumed per mile increases as 
the speed of the train decreases, and it correspondingly 
decreases as the speed increases. 

Salt water is more buoyant than fresh water, and for 
this reason will force the drop of oil off the feed cone 
sooner. There would be more drops of oil per minute 
than if the water in the sight feed chamber were fresh, 
but the quantity of oil would not be any less. When 
water in the sight feed chamber becomes salty it is car- 
ried into the chamber from the boiler by the mechanical 
action of the steam. 

A constant evaporation is taking place in the con- 
denser of all types of locomotive lubricators. The same 
condition also exists in the outlet of the sight feed cham- 
ber. 

There are two principles involved in a locomotive lu- 
bricator. The first is hydrostatic. The hydrostatic pressure 
ends on the point of the feed cone. From that point to 
the surface of the water in the sight feed chamber, the 
oil travels at the rate of 30 feet per minute. The second 
is that the oil coming in contact with the steam is car- 
ried to the steam-chest by gravity, heat and motion. 

Chokes located at the steam-chest (Plate 41) give 
more satisfactory results than those located at the lu- 
bricator, as the boiler pressure passes down to the steam- 
chest chokes and prevents back pressure into the oil pipe 



LOCOMOTIVE LUBRICATORS. 147 

and also permits the lubricator to feed against a constant 
boiler pressure, instead of feeding against a fluctuating 
oil pipe pressure, when the chokes are located at the lu- 
bricator. All oil used in the lubricator should be care- 
fully strained, as it will not feed oil filled with foreign 
matter or coarse solid substances. 

If there is insufficient valve oil to fill the lubricator, 
enough water should be added for the purpose. This 
will enable the feeds to be started promptly. 

If at any time it becomes necessary to fill the lu- 
bricator with cold oil, and the engine is to remain out 
of service for several hours, the steam pressure should 
be turned on slightly at the boiler, and the water-valve 
D should be opened in order to prevent excessive pres- 
sure from the expansion of the oil. 

The steam valve controlling the pressure from the 
boiler to the condenser should be opened wide when a 
locomotive is in service, to allow ample condensation to 
take place in the condenser. With the steam valve only 
partially open, the small volume, of steam will be diverted 
into the equalizing tubes. The feeds will gradually slow 
down as condensation decreases. 

On engines which use soda-ash boiler compounds, or 
which run in bad water districts, lubricators will carry im- 
purities into the condenser, and will gradually accumu- 
late them at the base of the water- valve (unless they are 
frequently blown out) until the water is completely shut 
off. At times these impurities lodge above the water 
check. While the water-valve is becoming clogged the 
feeds will be affected, by reason of insufficient water en- 
tering the lubricator, and finally the passage will be 
closed by the sediment and the feeds' will cease to work. 

When the feeds close while the locomotive is in serv- 
ice, all feeds and the water-valve should be closed, the 
drain cock opened and about one-half pint of water al- 



i 4 8 LOCOMOTIVE LUBRICATORS. 

lowed to drain off. The drain cock should then be closed 
and the water-valve opened quickly. The condenser 
pressure will force the sediment to the bottom of the lu- 
bricator where it can be blown out in the usual manner 
when the lubricator is empty. 

If the lubricator siphons, the trouble should be looked 
for at the water check. It may be caused by scale or 
borings preventing the ball check from seating, or the 
check may have been lost by removing plug 2239 (Plate 

38). 

The follower on a sight feed glass should not be ad- 
justed too tightly, as it will only serve to injure the pack- 
ing. There is no danger of leakage at this point, as the 
glass and packing are so designed that the greater the 
pressure from the inside the better will be the joint. 

The cause of small drops of oil or a variation of the 
size of drops is that the water supply has become impreg- 
nated with saline matter. This occurs in alkali, salt 
water or oil well regions from which the water supply 
is obtained. The saline matter is carried to the lubricator 
mechanically by the steam, so that the water in the sight 
feed glass contains a considerable quantity of it, and the 
amount increases until it crystallizes around the feed 
cones, thus gradually diminishing the size of the opening 
from which the oil enters the feed glass. 

This difficulty can be remedied by closing all feed 
stems, opening all sight feed drain stems and blowing 
them out thoroughly, the action of the steam dissolving 
the salt crystals on the cones. Sufficient time should be 
allowed for condensation, after which the feeds should 
be started, and the drops will be of normal size. 

When a lubricator becomes air-bound it is brought 
about by filling the lubricator while on the road. The 
temperature in the oil reservoir being nearly that of the 
steam pressure, the oil will expand rapidly. The filler 



LOCOMOTIVE LUBRICATORS. 149 

plug is usually put in before the reservoir is rilled. The 
steam and water pressures are hurriedly turned on and 
the feeds are also turned on before sufficient time has 
elapsed for condensation to accumulate enough water to 
fill the reservoir completely. The feeds will not respond 
under such conditions, for the reason that the positive 
pressures having equalized, the lubricator has become air- 
bound. 

This trouble can be overcome by opening all feeds 
and one of the sight feed drain stems, which allows the 
water in the oil tubes and the air or gas occupying the 
highest space in the oil reservoir to escape to the at- 
mosphere. The oil will quickly follow. The open feeds 
and vent stem should then be closed, until" the condensa- 
tion again fills the sight feed chamber. 

When irregular feeding or racing occurs the trouble 
should be looked for at the automatic steam-chest valves, 
or at the chokes located at the lubricator end of the oil 
pipes. When the opening through any of these chokes 
has become enlarged above the standard, the feed will 
race when the engine throttle is closed. 

The cause of the lubricator racing is due to the fact 
that the steam pressure is not maintained on the water 
in the sight feed glass on account of the suction from the 
cylinder, which allows the oil to feed faster when the 
throttle is closed than when open. 

The difference between a clogged equalizing tube and 
a clogged choke tube is that if the choke is stopped up 
the glass and the equalizing tube will fill up with oil when 
the throttle is open, but when the throttle is closed and 
the equalizing tube is stopped up, the oil disappears from 
the glass, which does not occur when the choke is 
stopped up. 

To operate the lubricator when the steam-pipe lead- 
ing to the condenser is broken, a blind gasket should be 



ISO LOCOMOTIVE LUBRICATORS. 

put in at the pipe connection at the condenser and the 
feed to the air-pump opened, which will allow the steam 
to back up through the sight feed and into the con- 
densing chamber, and the lubricator can then be oper- 
ated. If the air-pump pipe does not furnish enough 
steam through the choke, the choke plug in the pipe lead- 
ing to the pump should be taken out and the pump lubri- 
cated by removing the caps on the pump head at frequent 
intervals. 

When a high pressure is used there is a tendency for 
a gummy substance to collect around the feed stems and 
cones. This substance can be removed and the glasses 
cleaned and filled in the following manner : 

After all the oil is fed from the lubricator, the press- 
ure should be left turned on and all feeds closed except 
one. The vent stem to this feed should then be opened, 
which will allow the condensation to circulate and thor- 
oughly cleanse the feed stem, cone and glass. The vent 
stem should be closed and the glass will immediately fill 
with condensation from the lubricator. The feed stem 
should then be closed. The same operation should be re- 
peated with the other feeds. The water feed valves 
should then be closed, the body of the lubricator blown 
out and the lubricator then filled with oil in the usual 
manner. 



i5i 



PISTON AND VALVE=STEM PACKING. 



UNITED STATES METALLIC PISTON AND VALVE- 
STEM PACKING. 



Plate 42 shows a sectional view of the piston rod pack- 



ing. 




PLATE 42. 



List of Parts. 

2. Babbitt Metal Ring 6. Vibrating Cup 

3. Follower 7. Gland 

4. Ball Joint 8. Preventer 

5. Swab Cup 



152 PISTON AND VALVE-STEM PACKING. 

Plate 43 shows a sectional view of valve-stem pack- 
ing. 

List of Parts. 

2. Babbitt M'etal Ring 6. Vibrating Cup 

3. Follower 7. Gland 

4. Ball Joint 8. Preventer 

5. Swab Cup 9. Support 




PLATE 43. 

Construction and Operation. The principle of opera- 
tion is as follows : The babbitt metal rings which serve 
to make the joint around the piston are the only parts 
which come in contact with the rod. These rings are 
contained in the vibrating cup, and are forced into the cup 
against the rod, which causes them to close as they be- 
come worn by steam pressure. The purpose of the spring 
is to hold the rings and other parts in place when steam 
is shut off. A ground joint is made between the flat 



PISTON AND VALVE-STEM PACKING. 153 

face of the vibrating cup and the ball joint. There is also 
a ground joint between the ball joint and the gland. 
The combination of the sliding face of the vibrating cup 
and the ball joint permits the packing to fit around the 
rod closely, without any increase in friction. Should the 
piston be out of line by reason of wear occurring between 
piston head and cylinder, it will cause more or less vibra- 
tion of the piston rod, and if not protected by the sliding 
face of the vibrating cup and ball joint, the piston would 
ruin the packing in a short time. 

Follower and Preventer. The flanged follower and 
preventer are used to prevent the babbitt metal rings and 
parts from getting sufficient clearance to allow the steam 
pressure to seat them with sufficient force to damage the 
rings. 

Gland. The parts of the packing are held in place by 
the gland which is bolted to the face of the stuffing-box, 
a copper gasket being used to make a steam-tight joint. 
Swab Cnps. A swab cup is fastened to the outside of 
the gland, which is filled with swab material, and is kept 
saturated with oil. This not only serves to assist in lu- 
brication, but also prevents dirt, dust and other foreign 
matter from being carried into the packing and destroy- 
ing the rings. 

Vibrating Cups. The vibrating cup 6 is shown in 
Plates 42 and 43. The combination of the acute and ob- 
tuse angle allows the rings to feed into the cups and 
against the rod as the wear takes place, and at the same 
time prevents them from being forced out along the rod 
through the space between the rod and the opening of 
the cup. 

Metal Rings. A set of metallic packing consists of 
three rings which are cast with a flanged opening, the 
flanges overlapping each other when in service, making 
a steam-tight joint, with a small open space left between 



154 PISTON AND VALVE-STEM PACKING. 

the flanges so that they will quickly adjust themselves 
to the surface of the rod. When the rings have become 
adjusted, their ends will come solidly together. When 
in this condition, the packing will wear longer than if the 
rings were continually cut so that the ends would stand 
apart. Rings should not be cut open after being applied, 
as the wear on them will be excessive, and they will have 
a tendency to force out between the vibrating cup and the 
rod. 

AURORA L. £y K. METALLIC PISTON 
AND VALVE-STEM PACKING. 

Plate 44 shows a sectional view of the piston rod 
packing. 

List of Parts. 

B. Stuffing-Box Bushing G. Split Cast - Iron Re- 

C. Tee Ring enforcing Rings 

D. Outside Gland H. Retaining Springs 
F. Packing Rings 

Construction and Operation. The gland used with the 
L. & K. packing (Plate 44) is made entirely of cast-iron 
and consists of five parts, as follows : B, Stuffing-Box 
Bushing ; C, Tee Ring, which forms the grooves ; D, Out- 
side Gland, which may have the swabholder cast on it if 
desired ; G, two Split Cast-iron Re-enforcing Rings, held 
together by steel Retaining Springs H. Parts B, C, and 
D are bored one-half inch larger in diameter than the full 
size of piston rod, which allows them to pass over any en- 
larged crosshead fitted to that size. The re-enforcing 
rings G have nothing to do with making a steam-tight 
joint. Their only office, as their name implies, is to pre- 
vent the steam pressure from forcing the soft packing 
rings through the opening between the piston rod and 
the bore of parts C and D. Accordingly, the re-enforcing 



PISTON AND VALVE-STEM PACKING. 155 

rings are bored one thirty-second inch larger than the rod 
to prevent scoring it. 




PLATE 44. 



The grooves for holding the metallic packing and re- 
enforcing rings are formed by the Tee Ring C, the out- 



156 PISTON AND VALVE-STEM PACKING. 

side face of B and the inside face of D. These faces are 
smooth-finished, making steam-tight joints when the 
gland is in position. 

To allow the packing rings to follow any vibratory 
motion of the piston rod, due to faulty alignment or wear 
of the crosshead, the diameter of the grooves is five- 
eighths of an inch and the width one thirty-second of an 
inch larger than the corresponding dimensions of the 
packing rings. 

Valve-Stem Packing. Plate 45 shows a sectional 
view of the valve-stem packing. 

List of Parts. 

B. Stuffing-Box Bushing 

C. Tee Ring 

D. Outside Gland 
F. Packing Rings 

By comparing Plates 44 and 45, it will be noted that 
the locomotive valve-stem and piston packing do not dif- 
fer in any material respect. 

When applied to a slide-valve, the stuffing-box bush- 
ing B is made of bronze and supports the weight of the 
stem and yoke, at the same time acting as a guide for 
the rod. 

For piston valves, the bushing B is made of cast- 
iron. 

For valve-stems, the re-enforcing rings are not nec- 
essary, as there is no enlargement of the rod, and ac- 
cordingly the parts B, C and D are bored only one-eighth 
inch larger than the valve-stem. 

Packing Rings. The packing rings F are made of 
white metal of special composition, and are generally two 
in number, consisting of four segmental pieces, each hav- 
ing broken joints arranged in such a manner that they 
form steam-tight rings when under pressure. 



PISTON AND VALVE-STEM PACKING. 157 

Each segment has a feeding tongue, F-i, which wears 
off as the packing closes up on the rod. 

The four segments F, forming a ring, are held in po- 




PLATE 45. 



sition by the retaining spring H, which however does not 
aid in making a steam-tight joint on the rod. 

General Information. Unlike most forms of pack- 



158 LUBRICATION. 

ing, no heavy coil spring is used to secure a steam-tight 
joint between the packing rings and the piston. 

This packing depends entirely upon the steam press- 
ure to make tight joints, and for this reason there is 
practically no friction on the rod when the engine is not 
working steam. 

When under steam pressure, the rings are forced 
tightly against the outer wall of their respective grooves, 
and the steam also presses the segments tightly upon the 
rod, thereby forming a steam-tight joint. 

In service, the segments close up along a plane paral- 
lel to the circumference of the rod, and hence the packing 
remains steam-tight until the segments have closed up en- 
tirely, due to wear. After this has occurred, the packing 
rings should be renewed. 

LUBRICATION. 

Oiling the Engine. The lubricator and the rod cups 
should first be filled, after which, if possible, the engine 
should be placed in such a position that all parts can be 
oiled without moving the engine a second time in order 
to reach driving boxes, valve gears and wedges. If the 
driving box is made as shown in Plate 46, a small quan- 




PLATE 46. 

tity of oil should be put in the oil pocket which leads to 
the wedge, and a sufficient amount should be put in the 
center pocket. Care should be exercised in putting the 



LUBRICATION. 159 

oil intended for lubricating the journal well over toward 
the inside of the driving box, as the cinders and dirt ac- 
cumulate around the axle on the inside of the box, there 
being nothing to hold the oil or protect the box from, dirt, 
The inside usually becomes dry first, the heating of the 
box starting at that point. The shoe and oil pockets on 
the front side of the box should be treated in the same 
manner as the wedge. 

The quantity of oil used during the first oiling should 
be liberal, as at other points where oiling can be done the 
time may be limited, and if the engine be thoroughly lu- 
bricated before leaving the terminal, it will be necessary 
to use but a small amount of oil during the balance of the 
trip. After the first box is thoroughly lubricated, the 
second box should be treated in the same manner. The 
eccentrics, links, hangers, rocker boxes, shafts and all 
other connections to the valve gear should then be oiled. 
Next, the guide cups should be filled and the feeds set. 
The guide cups should not be filled too full, as the oil 
will run over the side of the cups and be wasted. 

The piston and valve-stem swab should then be oiled 
or the swab oil cups filled, if cups are provided. The en- 
gine trucks should then be oiled, after which the other 
side of the engine should be oiled in the same manner. 

The boxes of the tender trucks should then be ex- 
amined, to see if there is sufficient packing. If the pack- 
ing appears dry it should be oiled and the waste placed 
well up under the journal (Plate 47). 




PLATE 47. 



160 LUBRICATION. 

Disturbing Packing on Top of Driving or Truck 
Boxes. It is bad practice to disturb the packing on top 
of driving and engine truck boxes with the spout of 
the oil can when oiling the engine, for the reason that 
it stirs up any dirt, cinders or sand which may have 
lodged in the packing, and they are liable to work 
down with the oil to the bearings. The disturbing 
of the packing also destroys the fine feed channels 
which have formed in it, causing the oil to take another 
course, and may cause the bearing to become heated. 

Rod Grease Cups. Grease cups should be filled to 
within one-half inch of the top. Care should be taken 
when screwing down the plug not to force too much 
grease on the pin. A good practice is first to try the 
rod on the pin ; if it moves freely, the plug should be 
screwed down until the rod is hard to move, which 
will indicate that the pin has been given sufficient 
grease. Having had a little experience, an engineman 
can tell just about how much of a turn should be given 
the plug to insure safe running of the pin without 
heating. 

It is common for pins to run warm while using 
grease, for the reason that the grease must be melted 
into the form of oil in order to lubricate freely. There 
is no danger of the pin becoming overheated when 
given room in the brass and a reasonable amount of 
grease. 

Too much pressure on the grease plug will cause 
the grease to be wasted and the friction will be in- 
creased. 

Oil should not be used with grease, as the oil would 
cause the grease to soften and work out, leaving the 
bearings without lubrication. 

Hard Grease in Driving Cellars. On an engine 
equipped with grease- in the driving box cellar, the en- 



LUBRICATION. 161 

gineman can ascertain whether there is enough grease 
in the cellar to make the trip by the indicators which 
are fastened to the follower on the bottom of the cel- 
lar. 

If the cellar requires packing on the road, this can 
be done by removing the plate on the side of the cellar, 
pulling down the indicators, which compress the 
spring, and then refilling the cellar with grease. Care 
should be taken to get the grease between the per- 
forated plate and the plate on top of the spring. If 
there is insufficient rod grease for the purpose, enough 
grease should be taken from the other driving boxes, 
or a certain amount of grease can be put in, and a 
quantity of hard soap placed on top of it. 

ENGINE OIL NOT TO BE USED ON VALVES OR IN 
STEAM CYLINDERS. 

Engine oil should not be used on valves or in steam 
cylinders for the reason that it will evaporate and be- 
come like a gas which has no lubricating properties, 
when subjected to as high a temperature as that of 
steam. 

STARTING THE LUBRICATOR. 

Valves, cylinders and air-pumps are lubricated by 
means of sight feed lubricators and force-feed. 

The feed valves on the lubricator should be opened 
and allowed to feed slowly, at least thirty minutes before 
an engine leaves its terminal. 

The proper rate of feed is from five to ten drops per 
minute for cylinders (depending on the service) and one 
drop per minute for the air-pump. 

It is bad practice to carry water too high in the boiler, 
as the water is carried over the throttle and through the 
dry pipe to the steam-chest and washes the oil off the 



162 TREATMENT OF HOT BEARINGS. 

valves and cylinder walls, thereby causing them to cut, 
and is liable to cause damage to the cylinder head. 

If a valve appears dry when steam is being used and 
the lubricator is working, the engineman should ease off 
on the throttle, and drop the lever down a few notches. 

INSPECTION OF BEARINGS. 

To insure successful lubrication the engineman 
must examine all bearings to see that they are properly 
packed, see that all oil holes are open and that the 
waste in the cellars is up against the journal, feel all 
bearings to ascertain whether they are running hot, 
and, if found to be heating, give them necessary atten- 
tion and lubrication. 

The feeders of oil cups should be adjusted according 
to the requirements of the bearings, and should always 
be closed at terminals. 

It is bad practice to keep engine oil close to the boiler 
in warm weather, as it will become too hot and run off 
the bearing too readily when applied. 

TREATMENT OF HOT BEARINGS. 

Engine Trucks. A bearing which becomes hot 
should always receive prompt attention. If an engine 
truck is running hot the brass and cellar should be exam- 
ined and the cellar repacked if necessary. If equipped 
with a water line the water should be turned on for cool- 
ing purposes. If without a water line, the engineman 
should see that the journal is getting oil. If the brass 
is defective it should be replaced. 

Driving Boxes. If a driving box is running 
hot, the oil holes should be examined to see if they 
are open, and the cellar examined to see if it is 
well packed. If the packing is not up against 
the journal it should be repacked. If the engine is 
equipped with a water line, the water should be 



TREATMENT OF HOT BEARINGS. 163 

turned on for cooling purposes, and the wedge pulled 
down enough to prevent sticking. If the box continues 
to run hot, it should be relieved of a part of its weight, 
by running the driver on a wedge and placing a block be- 
tween the saddle and frame or between the equalizer and 
frame. 

Guides. If the guides run hot, they should be 
cooled off with oil, and care should be exercised to see 
that they get sufficient lubrication. If a crosshead 
works too tightly in its guides, causing them to heat, 
they should be shimmed up by placing liners at both 
ends, if necessary. 

Rods. When the forward end of the connecting 
rod runs hot, the engineman should see that it is get- 
ting proper lubrication and that the oil is feeding 
freely. If it is keyed too tightly, he should slack up 
on the key, and if too loosely, which would cause 
heating, it should be keyed up. If the back end of 
a connecting rod is running hot and has started the 
babbitt, he should keep going until all of the babbitt 
has been thrown out of the brass, and then come to 
a stop. The key should be slacked up, the pin cooled 
off, and if the feed is stopped up, it should be taken out 
and cleaned, and the cup refilled with either grease 
or good oil. The heating of the back end of the 
main or connecting rod can do no further harm to the 
engine, when given room on the pin and a sufficient 
supply of lubrication. 

If a side rod runs hot it should be treated in the 
same manner as a connecting rod. If the main wedge 
is down it should be set up, as this is the usual cause 
of side rods running hot. 

Eccentrics. If an eccentric runs hot, it should be 
given a sufficient supply of oil, and examined to see if 
the eccentric cam bolts are loosening up. If so, they 



164 WATER SUPPLY. 

should be tightened as their loosening will cause the 
eccentric to bind in the strap. If the trouble is due to 
the eccentric strap being too tight, shims or liners 
should be inserted at the top and bottom of the strap. 
Water should never be used on a hot eccentric; oil 
only should be used. 

Trailer or Tender Truck. If a trailer or tender truck 
runs hot, it should be repacked ; if a water line is avail- 
able it should be turned on, the brass examined, and 
if found defective, it should be replaced. 

Use of Valve Oil. Valve oil or grease should be 
used on hot bearings which are too hot to be cooled 
by ordinary car or engine oil. 

FRICTION. 

The rubbing together of any two surfaces constitutes 
friction and produces heat. The interposing of a thin 
layer or coating of lubricant, so that the two surfaces do 
not actually come in contact with each other, lessens the 
friction. 

The amount of friction produced is determined by the 
resistance between the two bodies in contact, which op- 
poses the sliding of one upon the other, the pressure 
of one body bearing upon the other, the nature of the 
material or materials in contact or the nature and lubri- 
cating properties of the interposing lubricant. Speed and 
temperatures are also determining factors. 

WATER. SUPPLY. 

When leaving a terminal or starting from a station 
or siding there should be sufficient water in the boiler 
to get the train under headway before using the in- 
jector. Water should then be supplied to the boiler 
in quantity equal to that consumed by evaporation, the 
supply to be increased or decreased as the nature of the 
work demands. The water supplied to the boiler should 
not exceed the consumption by evaporation, as increasing 



WATER SUPPLY. 165 

the supply when the engine is working steam tends to 
destroy the steaming efficiency of the majority of en- 
gines. On way freight or other trains which are re- 
quired to make indefinite stops at stations, the supply of 
water in the boiler should be allowed to decrease slight- 
ly between stops, which aids in the maintenance of 
pressure and results in a more economical use of fuel, the 
supply being replenished at stations during the stop or 
while the work is being done. This aids the fireman in 
keeping the fire bright, and supplying water at frequent 
intervals prevents the engine from blowing off. On switch 
engines water should be supplied to the boiler at times 
when there is the least drain on it. Engines pulling 
cinder pit tracks or putting coal on docks should be given 
a good supply of water in order to protect the crown- 
sheet. When leaving the engine at the cinder pit a good 
fire should be left burning, and at least two gauges of 
water in the boiler, which will eliminate the necessity of 
working the injector during the time that the fire is be- 
ing cleaned and supplies taken. 

PRIMING AND FOAMING. 

Priming and foaming are terms commonly, used 
when the water is carried from the boiler, through 
the throttle and dry pipe, to the cylinders. Prim- 
ing is usually caused by an oversupply of water in 
the boiler, due to negligence on the part of the engine- 
man or other employe in charge of the engine. At times 
priming is due to the difference in the temperature and 
pressure in the water below the steam. When the throt- 
tle is opened suddenly the pressure on top of the water 
is relieved, which will create a rapid generation of steam, 
and cause rapid circulation in the boiler, filling the space 
from which the steam has been drawn. As soon as. the 
pressure is relieved through the throttle, bubbles of steam 
will flow from the heating surface of the boiler to the 



1 66 WATER SUPPLY. 

point at which the steam is escaping through the throt- 
tle. The rapidity of these bubbles would be so great 
when passing to the dome that large quantities of water 
would be carried with them. 

The foaming of the boiler is usually caused by some 
foreign substance in the water, such as oil, soap, grease 
or alkali in districts where the feed water is bad. One 
of the causes for water being carried into the throttle 
and foaming is due to a measure of the steam passing 
over the surface of the water to the outlet or throttle, 
carrying particles of water with it. If the engine is al- 
lowed to blow off during the time the boiler is foaming 
it will increase the flow of water toward the dome. When 
the safety-valve is open the pressure in the boiler should 
be reduced, which will assist in preventing the water 
from being carried into the dome. 

In addition to foreign or oily matter causing the boiler 
to foam, the use of foul or dirty water is one of the 
prime causes of foaming. Frequent washing of the boil- 
er will eliminate this troublesome feature to a great ex- 
tent. 

In bad water districts it is necessary to change the 
water or wash the boiler each trip. When an engine is 
priming or foaming it can immediately be detected by the 
engineman, the exhaust having a muffled or dead sound, 
in addition to showing a white vapor at the stack.' In 
addition to this, the water in the water-glass will rise, in- 
dicating a full glass of water. When these indications 
appear, the cylinder cocks should be opened at once to 
prevent water accumulating in the cylinder and the con- 
sequent danger of the cylinder head or piston being 
broken. The throttle should be partially closed, drop- 
ping down the lever and working the engine at a longer 
stroke, if necessary, to handle the train. 

In the event the water does not settle to its level, the 
throttle should be shut off momentarily, and the water 



WEDGES. 167 

will seek its level and indicate the correct amount of 
water in the boiler. Some types of engines are equipped 
with a surface cock located in the back end of the boiler, 
between the upper and lower gauge-cocks. With the 
use of the surface cock, foul particles which have risen 
to the top of the water can usually be blown out. 

Should the priming or foaming continue during a 
trip, the boiler should be thoroughly blown out at fre- 
quent intervals in the manner previously described, which 
will assist the engineman in reaching the terminal with- 
out causing an engine failure. 

During the time the boiler is foaming there is danger 
of exposing the crown-sheet to the fire and consequent 
liability of its becoming overheated. There is also danger 
of knocking out a cylinder head. Both priming and 
foaming will cause the lubrication to be washed off the 
valves, causing them to cut, unless given extra lubrica- 
tion, and will frequently cause the cylinder packing to 
break. 

Valves and cylinders should always be kept free from 
water to prevent all chance of rupture, which would 
necessarily occur if water passed to the cylinder and 
the piston were forced to the end of its stroke. 

WEDGES. 

Plate 48 shows the wedge, wedge bolt and shoe 
as attached to the frame. When setting up the wedges, 
the engine should be placed on a straight level 
track under steam, this being necessary for the reason 
that the parts of the frame which lie against the fire-box 
expand when heated and become longer 'than when the 
boiler is cold. 

When setting up a wedge, the engine should be placed 
on the top quarter and a block then placed on the rail 
back of the wheel on which the wedge is to be set up. 
The engine should then be moved back against the block. 



i68 



WEDGES. 



The placing of a block back of the wheel is to move the 
driving box solidly against the shoe, so that all lost mo- 
tion between the jaw and the box will be taken up back of 
the box, thus permitting the wedge to be readily set up. If 
the wedges are to be set up all around, the engine should 
be placed on the top forward eighth on the right side. 
This will place the engine on the top back eighth on the 
left side. The engine truck wheels should then be blocked 
ahead, the reverse lever placed in the forward motion 
and the throttle opened. This will admit steam back of 
both pistons, and pull all the driving boxes up against 
the dead wedge or shoe i, so that all the wedges can be 



J L 



jLJ LjL 



4l 
(ft 






7 



o 



PLATE 48. 

set up without again moving the engine. The jam nut 
2 and then the wedge bolt 3 should be loosened, after 
which wedge 4 should be pried up with a small bar. On 
an eight-wheel engine the wedge on the main driving 
wheels should be set up snugly, and then pulled down 
about one-sixteenth inch, or until the wedge is free be- 
tween the box and jaw, and the other driving wedges 
should be pulled down about one-eighth inch, which will 



ROD BRASSES. 169 

insure a free movement of the boxes. On ten-wheel en- 
gines the front and back wedges should be pulled down 
about one-eighth inch and the main wedge about one- 
sixteenth inch. Wedge bolts (3) should then be ad- 
justed in such a manner as to keep wedges 4 in their re- 
spective positions and jam nut 2 tightened. 

A broken wedge bolt frequently causes the wedge 
to stick to the box, pulling it up solid between the box 
and jaw, causing the driving box to run hot. 

When, with heavy engines or engines with solid side 
rods, it becomes necessary to set up a wedge with the 
wedge bolt broken, it can be done by placing a nut on the 
top and bottom of the wedge, and securing them in po- 
sition with a wire. Care should be taken to prevent the 
wedge from being set up too tightly. 

If the wedges are set up too tightly and the driving 
box sticks, the engine will ride hard, having an up and 
down motion, and will cause driving boxes to run hot. 
With wedge stuck solid, to pull the wedges down, the 
jam nut should be loosened and the wedge bolt tightened 
up to pull the w^edge down, or the wedge pried down. 
A wedge can also be brought down by running that 
wheel over a nut placed on the rail, with wedge bolt 
tight. 

If, when a wedge is up against the lower part of the 
top frame, and there is still lost motion between the 
wedge and the driving box, it should be reported lined 
down. 

ROD BRASSES. 

Rod brasses should be reported for filing when 
there is sufficient lost motion to cause a pound, or the 
brasses are keyed brass to brass, or so closely together 
that the edges of the brasses meet, and if the pound- 
ing continues should be reported for lining up when 
the kev is down to a point where it cannot be forced 



170 ROD BRASSES. 

further, in order to prevent the brasses from working in 
the strap. 

Keying Main Rod Brasses. When it is neces- 
sary to key up the forward end of the main rod 
brasses, the engine should be placed on the top or 
bottom quarter, and at the top forward eighth or the 
lower back eighth to key up the back end of the 
rod. With the engine in these positions the rod is bear- 
ing on the largest part of the pins, and when free at 
these points it will also be free at all other points and 
will not bind or heat. The crank pins are perfectly 
cylindrical when put in the wheel, but as the greatest 
wear takes place when the steam pressure is the highest 
in the cylinder they wear unevenly. 

Steam is first admitted to the cylinder when the pis- 
ton is at or near the beginning of the stroke. This causes 
the greatest wear to take place on both sides of the pin 
when the engine is passing the center. The average cut- 
off for all classes of service is considered half stroke. 
The steam line will be cut off when the crank pin is at 
or near the quarter of each stroke. Therefore, when an 
engine is in the forward motion, the wear on the crank 
pin and wrist pin will take place while the pin moves 
from the forward center to the lower quarter, and from 
the back center to the top quarter, and the brass will 
open and close with each stroke, unless properly keyed. 

The valve has reached its greatest opening when the 
crank pin is at or near a point midway between the for- 
ward center and the bottom quarter. The pin must, 
therefore, be smallest between these two points. The 
main rod brass should ' always be keyed on the largest 
part of the pin, and the engine should be placed to bring 
the pin opposite the two points mentioned. 

The brass should be keyed moderately tight and then 
moved sideways at both front and back ends, after 
which the set-screws should be tightened. 



ROD BRASSES. ■ 171 

For keying up the back end of the main rod, the top 
forward eighth is preferable, for the reason that in key- 
ing the brass to the pin it can be done without shifting 
the weight of the rod. When keying up the forward end 
the bottom quarter is preferable, as the brass can be keyed 
to the pin without shifting the weight of the rod, 
and it is also easier to get at the set-screws on a double 
guide engine. 

Keying Side Rod Brasses. When the side rods 
are to be keyed up, the engine should be placed on 
a straight and level piece of track and on the center on 
the side which is to be keyed. The wedges should be 
set up, and all keys on that side slacked off. The main 
connection should be keyed first. To key the side rods 
the proper length, with the double keyway in the middle 
connection and solid end rods, one of the keys should 
be driven out and the other one driven down as far as 
it will go, marked and then driven out. The other key 
should then be driven down and marked in the same man- 
ner, and then driven up part way. Both keys should 
next be driven down an equal distance, which can be 
determined by the marks, and then keyed down so that 
the rod can be moved laterally on the pin. 

If the side rods are equipped with one key on the 
forward and back end and two keys in the middle con- 
nection, the forward and back ends should be keyed first 
and the difference divided on the middle connection 
keyway. If the side rod is provided with a single key- 
way in the forward end, single in the middle and a 
double keyway in the back, the middle should be keyed 
first, the front next, and the difference divided on the 
double keyway. 

After the rods have been keyed on the center, the rods 
should be tried on the center opposite to the one on 
which they were keyed, care being taken to see that they 



i 7 2 - VALVE MOTION. 

move laterally and do not clamp the pin. It is also well 
to try the rods on the quarter, as old pins may have 
been worn out of round. The rods on the opposite side 
of the engine should then be keyed in the same manner. 
A sufficient amount of play should be left in the rods, 
especially if the driving boxes are badly worn. If there 
is no allowance made for lost motion in the driving boxes 
and wedges, the side rods will be subjected to severe 
strain and liability of breaking the pins, in addition to 
causing excessive wear and running hot. 

The engine should always be placed on the dead- 
center when keying up side rods. If they are keyed in 
any other position there is a possibility of keying the 
rods either too long or too short, or out of tram, so that 
they cannot pass the center without binding or heating. 
An engine is out of tram when the driving wheel centers 
and pin centers are not the same on both sides of the 
engine. 

Brasses should be properly keyed up at all times. A 
failure to do so -will cause a constant pounding of the 
rods, which will cause the brasses to heat and break. 
They will also loosen rod cups and strap bolts, pound 
all nuts and bolts about the engine loose, causing unnec- 
essary wear to the rod brasses, in addition to causing a 
loss of power. 

VALVE MOTION. 

Controlling and Operating Parts. The parts which 
control and operate the valve motion, as shown in Plate 
49, are as follows : 



I. 


Reverse Lever. 


ii. 


Strap. 


2. 


Reach Rod. 


12. 


Blade. 


3- 


Reversing Arm. 


13- 


Link Block. 


4- 


Tumbling Shaft. 


14. 


Link Block Pin. 


5- 


Lifting Arm. 


15. 


Top and Bottom Rock- 


6. 


Link Hanger. 




er Arm. 


7- 


Link Saddle. 


16. 


Valve Rod. 


8. 


Pin. 


17. 


Valve-Stem. 


9- 


Link. 


18. 


Yoke. 


o. 


Eccentric. 


19. 


Valve. 



VALVE MOTION. 



*73 



Tracing the Steam from the Boiler to the Atmos- 
phere. Plate 50 shows an interior view of the boiler, 
throttle, stand pipe, dry pipe, and steam pipe and also 




0) 



the manner in which they are connected. When the 
throttle is open, steam passes by throttle valve A in the 



174 



VALVE MOTION. 



dome, through stand pipe B ; to dry pipe C, through the 
dry pipe to the nigger-head D in the smoke arch and 




VALVE MOTION. 



175 



thence through the steam pipes E to the steam passage 
F in the cylinder saddle and to steam-chest G. When 
the port is uncovered by valve H for the admission of 
steam to the cylinder, the piston is forced to the oppo- 
site end, thus transmitting its power to the crosshead 
and main rod, thence to the pin, wheel and rail, and from 
the journal and eccentric to the valve motion, giving the 
forward and backward motion to the valve, shutting off 
the admission of steam to the cylinder and opening the 
exhaust port J just before the piston has completed its 
stroke. The steam then passes out through the same steam 
port H through which it entered, either by the end of 
the inside admission piston valve, or through the ex- 
haust cavity I to the exhaust passage J, through exhaust 
stand K and nozzle L, through petticoat-pipe M, and 
sleeve N, if used, to the stack O and out to the atmos- 
phere. 




PLATE SI 



Steam Admission. Steam is admitted to the steam- 
chest through two channels AA (Plate 51), called steam 
passages, which are cast in the cylinder. These pas- 
sages terminate in a smooth flat surface BB called the 
valve-seat. The openings CC are the steam ports. Be- 
tween them is another cavity D, called the exhaust cav- 
ity, and the exhaust arch E is directly over the exhaust 
cavity D. The shape of these ports is long and narrow, 
shown in Plate 51. Over these ports is valve V, which 
is usually made of cast-iron, and so constructed that by 



176 VALVE MOTION. 

moving it forward and backward its movement will al- 
ternately cover and uncover the steam ports CC. The 
valve and seat are inclosed in the steam-chest (Plate 55), 
to which steam is admitted from the boiler through the 
dry pipe. 

Steam Exhaust. The locomotive exhausts steam 
four times during one revolution of the driving wheels. 
When the right-hand crosshead has moved back from 
forward center to nearly the middle of the guides, the 
left engine is exhausting on its forward stroke. When 
the right-hand crosshead reaches a point close to the 
back end of the guides, the right engine is exhausting 
on the backward stroke. When the crosshead on its 
return movement nearly reaches the middle of the 
guides, the left engine is exhausting on the backward 
stroke, and when the crosshead nears the forward end 
of the guides, the right engine exhausts on the forward 
stroke. 




When the valve is in the position shown in Plate 52, 
the front steam port C is uncovered and steam is ad- 
mitted to the front end of the cylinder, indicated by the 
arrow, and forces the piston toward the back end, or in 
the direction of the arrow. Plate 53 shows the valve at 
its extreme travel with full port opening. The opera- 
tion of the piston valve is similar to that of the slide- 
valve, except that a piston valve works in a bushing in- 
stead of on a flat surface. 



VALVE MOTION. 



177 




PLATE S3. 

When the piston reaches the back end of the cylinder, 
the valve has been moved to the position shown in Plate 
54, the back steam port C will be uncovered and steam 
will be admitted to the back end of the cylinder, indi- 
cated by the arrow. At the same time the front steam 
port C and the exhaust port D are both uncovered by 
the cavity E in the slide-valve so that the steam which 
was admitted to the front end of the cylinder can now 
escape, as indicated by the arrow, through steam port 
C, into exhaust port D and thence to the atmosphere. 
By the movement of the slide-valve alternately back 
and forth, steam is simultaneously admitted to one end 
of the cylinder and exhausted from the other, and vice 
versa. 




PLATE 54. 



BALANCE SLIDE-VALVES. 

A balance slide-valve is a valve so constructed that 
a certain percentage of the top surface of the valve is ex- 
cluded from steam-chest pressure. Plate 55 (Fig. 1) 
shows a Richardson balance valve as it appears inside 
the steam-chest. Fig. 2 shows the top of the valve with 



one strip and spring removed. 



i 7 8 



VALVE MOTION. 




FIG. 1 




PLATE 55. 



FIG. 2. 



The balance feature of the valve is obtained by a 
plate (Fig. i) which extends beyond the extreme travel 
of the valve, and is bolted to the steam-chest cover by 
bolts BB. 

The purpfrse of the balance valve is to lessen the wear 
and the strain on the valve gear, reduce the consumption 
of oil and assist in making the handling of the reverse 
lever more easy, in addition to increasing the power of 
the engine. 

The Allen-Richardson Valve. The Allen-Richard- 
son valve has its valve grooved for the reception of 
four snugly fitting strips SS, which are supported 
against the balance plate by semi-elliptic spring E 
(Fig. 2) which forms a steam-tight joint and prevents 
any pressure from reaching the inclosed part of the 
valve shown in Fig. I. 

American Balance Valve. The American balance 
valve obtains the same result, but uses circular tapering 
rings. Plate 56 shows one ring A removed from disk B. 
These rings are fitted on a cone-shaped disk B, and are 
a spring within themselves. When the steam is admitted 
to the chest, it exerts a pressure on the entire outside face 
of ring A. This causes the ring to press more firmly 
against the cone and balance plate, making a steam-tight 
joint. A balance plate is used with this style of valve 
which is similar to that shown in Plate 55. 



VALVE MOTION. 



179 




PLATE S6. 
Double Cone American Ba/ancera/ve. 



The hole D is drilled through the top of the valve 
to allow any steam passing by the strips or rings to 
escape to the exhaust, without destroying the balance 
feature of the valve. 

The Allen Ported Valve. With the plain slide- 
valve it has been found difficult in short cut-offs to get 
the full steam-chest pressure at the beginning of the 
stroke without excessive lead, and to overcome this 
difficulty the Allen ported valve (Plate 57) was de- 
signed. 




PLATE 57. 



This valve has a supplementary port AA supplying 
steam to one steam port from both sides of the valve at 
the same time, thus giving double port opening for 
the same travel of the valve, and an increase of steam 
pressure in the cylinder. This valve has given excellent 



i8o 



VALVE MOTION. 



results, as it admits a good supply of steam at a high 
initial cylinder pressure with short valve travel, and it is 
especially adapted to high speed engines working in 
short cut-offs. This valve is of the "D" type. 

PISTON VALVE. 

The piston valve derives its name from its con- 
struction. It consists of two pistons PP, connected by 
a stem which is usually hollow (Plate 58). The pis- 
tons have two or more packing rings which form 
the exhaust and steam edges of the valve. Packing rings 
I and 2 form the steam edges and rings 3 and 4 the ex- 
haust edges. 




PLATE 58. 

Plate 59 shows the piston valve in the bushing, and 
cylinder. v 

Plate 60 shows a section through the saddle and cyl- 
inder. V represents the piston valve, C the cylinder, E 
the exhaust and S the steam passage. 

Plate 61 shows the piston valve bushing. The longi- 
tudinal strips or bridges are added to strengthen the 
bushing and to prevent the packing rings on the valve 
from springing past the edge of the port, while traveling 
over them. 



VALVE MOTION. 



(8i 




I 

k 



182 



VALVE MOTION. 




nioooooo 

PLATE 61. 

All piston valves are not alike, some being inside ad- 
mission and outside exhaust, while others are outside ad- 
mission and inside exhaust. 

INSIDE AND OUTSIDE ADMISSION VALVES. 

An inside admission valve is one in which the 
steam enters the steam port of the cylinder from the 
inside edge of the valve (Plate 59) and is exhausted 
from the outer edge of the valve. Inside admission 
valves are of the piston type. 

An outside admission valve is one ia which the steam 
enters the steam port from the outer edge and is ex- 
hausted from the inner edge (Plate 62). 




PLATE 6Z. 

On an inside admission valve the motion of the valve 
is in the opposite direction to that of the piston motion at 
the beginning of the stroke (Plate 59), while on an out- 
side admission valve the movement of the valve is in the 
same direction as that of the piston at the beginning of 
the stroke, (Plate 52). 

LAP AND LEAD. 

The width of the opening of the steam port to ad- 
mit steam into the cylinder when the piston is at the 



VALVE MOTION. 



183 



beginning of the stroke '(Plate 53) is called the lead of 
the valve. 

The valve is given lead in order that the steam port 
may have a greater opening at the beginning of the stroke 
of the piston, at the time when it is most needed. It also 
permits an earlier cut-off, in addition to providing a 
cushion against the piston as it nears the completion of 
its stroke, which prevents the lost motion in the recipro- 
cating parts from causing the engine to pound. 

The steam lap is that part of the valve which over- 
laps the inside edge of the outside. bridge when the valve 
stands centrally upon the valve-seat. It is that part of 
the valve marked "L," and is indicated by the space be- 
tween lines M and M in Plate 51. 

The exhaust lap is that part of the valve which over- 
laps the outside edge of the inside bridge of the valve- 
seat when the valve stands centrally on its seat, as shown 
in Plate 51 and indicated by the space between lines 
P and Q. 

A valve is given lap for the purpose of hastening 
the cut-off, and enables the engine to work steam ex- 
pansively. 

DIRECT AND INDIRECT MOTION VALVE GEARS. 

Both outside and inside admission valves have 
either direct or indirect motion, according to the po- 




PLATE 63. 



1 84 



VALVE MOTION. 



sition of the eccentrics on the shaft and the type of 
rocker arm used. 

A direct motion valve gear (Plate 63) is one which 
transmits the motion of the eccentric to the valve direct 
by means of the transmission bar and the rocker shaft, 
upon which both rocker arms hang suspended and move 
in the same direction. 




PLATE 64. 

An indirect motion valve gear (Plate 64) is one in 
which the power is transmitted from the eccentric to the 
lower rocker arm, which by its motion forward forces the 
upper rocker arm backward so that the travel of the ec- 
centric is opposite to that of the valve. 

STEAM EXPANSION. 

Working steam expansively is the process by 
which steam is admitted to the cylinder and cut off 
(Plate 62) before the piston has completed its full 
stroke, thereby allowing the expansive force of the 
steam to exert its energy upon the piston from the time 
the cut-off takes place up to a point where the steam is 
released. The distance the valve travels during the ex- 
pansion of the steam equals the total of the outside and 
inside laps of the valve. 

EXHAUST CLEARANCE. 

The exhaust clearance is the space between the 
inside edge of the exhaust arch and the outside edge of 



PREVENTING BREAKDOWNS. 185 

the exhaust bridges when the valve stands centrally on 
its seat, indicated by the space between lines O and P 
(Plate 51). 

COMPRESSION. 

Steam pressure which does not pass out of the 
cylinder during the time the exhaust port is open 
is entrapped in the cylinder, shown in Plate 62, and 
indicated by the arrows. When the valve is in this posi- 
tion the inside edge of the valve closes the back steam 
port to the exhaust. The exhaust steam which is en- 
trapped in the back end of the cylinder is compressed by 
the piston on its return stroke. This is called the point 
of compression. It will be seen that both steam ports are 
now covered by the valve shown in Plate 62. The com- 
pression will continue to increase until the piston has 
completed its stroke. With cylinders which are not 
equipped with relief valves, when the compression be- 
comes greater in the cylinder than the pressure in the 
steam-chest, it will force the valve off its seat and relieve 
the cylinder of its excessive pressure. 

PREVENTING BREAKDOWNS AND ACCIDENTS. 

Breakdowns and accidents are prevented by a 
thorough and careful inspection of the engine before 
leaving the roundhouse; also by making a thorough 
inspection each time when oiling. 

An engineman should set up the wedges or see that 
they are properly set up by the roundhouse man, key up 
all rod brasses, see that all nuts and bolts are tight, that 
all bearings are properly packed and lubricated, keep the 
headlight clean, put in any required lubricator and water- 
glasses, keep all boiler attachments in the cab well packed, 
do such work on the road as is necessary to insure a suc- 
cessful trip, and report all necessary repairs which should 
be made to the engine at the terminal. 



i86 

BREAKDOWNS. 

Locating Broken Valve, Valve-Stem or Yoke. If a 

valve, valve-stem or yoke is broken inside of the steam- 
chest, the breakage can be located by placing the en- 
gine at the half stroke, plumbing the rocker arm, open- 
ing the cylinder cocks and admitting a little steam to 
the chest. 

If the steam blows to the stack at any position of the 
reverse lever, it indicates that the valve is broken in such 
a manner that steam is admitted into the exhaust cavity. 
If the steam appears at one cylinder cock only, and can 
be shut off from that end of the cylinder by moving the 
reverse lever, it indicates that part of the valve is broken 
off. If while moving the reverse lever from full forward 
to back gear, the steam steadily appears from one cylinder 
cock, it indicates that the yoke or stem is broken, and if 
the steam escapes alternately from both cylinder cocks or 
can be shut off from the cylinder entirely, it will be nec- 
essary to test the engine on the opposite side in the same 
manner. 

Blocking for Broken Valve. If the valve is broken 
through into the exhaust cavity, the steam-chest cover 
should be removed and the supply ports to the steam- 
chest blocked. Build up on these blocks, and hold 
them in place by fastening down the steam-chest 
cover, take down the main rod (unless all pieces of 
the broken valve have been found and removed) and 
block the crosshead, as some of the pieces of the 
broken valve might work into the cylinder and do 
further damage if the main rod were left up (Plate 65). 

Lap of Valve Broken. If the lap of the valve is 
broken off, the engineman should place the valve so 
that one admission and one exhaust port are covered, 
disconnect the valve -stem, and clamp the valve there 
securely. Next take down the main rod, and block the 



BREAKDOWNS. 



187 




PLATE 65. 



crosshead back when possible to do so, using the best 
of blocks. As an extra precaution, take out the back 
cylinder cock or block it open (Plate 66). 




PLATE 66. 
Valve-Stem or Yoke Broken. If the valve-stem 
or yoke is broken and the relief valve is in the front 
end of the^steam-chest, the rocker arm should be 
plumbed, the valve-stem disconnected, the relief valve 
taken out, the valve moved back against the valve- 
stem and suitable blocking inserted against the valve 
on the opposite side. This blocking should be secured by 
screwing the relief valve back into the steam-chest (Plate 
67) . If the relief valve is located in the back end of the 
steam-chest the valve should be moved ahead against the 




PLATE 67, 

steam-chest and steam admitted to the chest. If there is 
no blow at the stack, the valve should be secured in that 
position by clamping the valve-stem, the main rod taken 
down and the crosshead blocked ahead; the front cylin- 
der cock should be removed or blocked open (Plate 68). 




PLATE 68. 



BREAKDOWNS. 



189 



If a blow occurs at the stack with the valve at the 
front of the chest, the steam-chest cover must be taken 
up, and the valve placed centrally on its seat, and secured 
in that position by the valve-stem and a block of wood 
placed in front of the valve and chest (Plate 69). 




PLATE 69. 

Piston Valve-Stem Broken. If the valve-stem of 
a piston valve breaks, the rocker arm should be 
plumbed, the valve-stem disconnected and clamped 
securely in position, the front steam-chest head then 
taken off and the valve shoved back against the stem 
and blocked between valve and head. 

Piston Valve Broken. If the piston valve is 
broken, the steam-chest head should be taken off and the 
valve, if it is not too badly broken, placed centrally on its 
seat and blocked from the head to the valve to prevent 
it from moving ahead. The valve-stem should also be 
disconnected and clamped against the valve to keep the 
latter from moving back. If clamping the valve-stem 
fails to keep the valve together, the back head should be 
removed and clamped with blocks in the same manner as 
the front head (Plate 70). If the valve is broken so 
badly that steam cannot be kept from the exhaust, the 
engine should be prepared to be towed in. 

Broken Valve-Seat. If the valve-seat is broken, 
and it is a front admission bridge and the admission 



190 



BREAKDOWNS. 



and exhaust ports can be covered (Plate 71), the valve- 
stem should be disconnected and clamped there secure- 
ly, the connecting rod taken down and the crosshead 
blocked back. 

But if it is the back admission bridge, the valve should 




PLATE 70. 

be moved ahead in a position just opposite to that shown 
in Plate 71, the crosshead blocked ahead and the cylinder 
cock removed from the end of the cylinder in which the 
piston is blocked. When blocked in this manner, one 
end of the cylinder is connected to the steam-chest, which 
will admit steam to the cylinder and against the piston 
head. Good blocking should always be used. 

The removing of the cylinder cock will allow steam 
to pass out of the cylinder if the valve should shift, and 
will indicate that the valve has moved from its position. 



BREAKDOWNS. 



191 




PLATE 71. 

If the cylinder cock were not removed and the throttle 
shut off, the pressure on one side of the piston would 
quickly escape and the pressure which had accumulated 
back of the piston would shift the piston and cross- 
head, causing further damage when the throttle was 
again opened. 

Broken Exhaust Bridge. If the exhaust bridge be- 
comes broken, the valve should be placed centrally on its 
seat, the valve-stem disconnected and clamped securely in 
place (Plate 72), the main rod taken down, and the 
crosshead blocked back. The reason why the main rod 
should be taken down is that pieces of the seat might 
w r ork down into the cylinder and do further damage. 




PLATE 72. 

Both Bridges Broken. If both the exhaust and 
admission bridges are broken, the steam-chest cover 
should be taken up and the supply ports to the chest 
blocked. This blocking must be built up until the 
steam-chest cover, when replaced, will hold the block- 
ing securely in place (Plate 65). The main rod may 
be left up if all the pieces of the broken valve-seat can 
be found, otherwise it should be taken down and the 
crosshead blocked back, as shown in Plate 66. 



192 



BREAKDOWNS. 



BY-PASS VALVES. 

A by-pass valve BB (Plate 73) is a small valve, 
one of which is placed on each end of the steam- 
chest for the purpose of preventing excessive pres- 
sure. They are connected with the live steam side of the 
valve EEE and the steam port between the valve and cyl- 
inder FF. They are held to their seats by the steam-chest 
pressure and are unseated when the compression in the 
cylinder becomes greater than the boiler pressure. 

If a by-pass valve is broken it should be tested for by 
covering the exhaust port with the main valve. If the 
blow then ceases' and steam appears at the cylinder cock 
it indicates a broken by-pass valve, and the cylinder cock 
which shows steam will indicate which valve is broken. 
A broken by-pass valve will cause a heavy blow at the 
stack when the exhaust is open. Plate 73 shows the back 
end of the cylinder open to exhaust, and also shows how 
steam can pass from E to F and out of the stack in case 
the back by-pass is broken. 




BREAKDOWNS. 



193 




FCCJE/VTitiC. 

PLATE 75. 

Breakage of Reversing Arm, Reverse Lever or 
Reach-Rod. If the reversing arm, reverse lever, or 
reach-rod breaks, one link should be blocked solid, 
both top and bottom, at the point of cut-off, which will 
enable the engine to handle the train over the division. 
This method of blocking is shown in Fig. 1, Plate 76. 
Some roads prefer that both links should be blocked 
at both top and bottom (Fig. 2, Plate 76). For the 
forward motion a small block is placed on top of both 
link blocks, and a long block under the link block in 
the bottom of the link, and so fitted that there will be 
three-quarters of an inch of play to accommodate the 
slip of the link block. If the engine is to be used in 



194 



BREAKDOWNS. 



the back motion, the long blocks should be placed on 
the top of the link block, and the short ones on the 
bottom of the link. These blocks should be fastened 
securely in their places by means of bell cord or wire. 




PLATE 76-FIGS. 1 and 2. 
Broken Transmission Bar or Hanger. To dis- 
connect for a broken transmission bar, the broken parts 
should be removed, the valve placed centrally upon its 
seat and the valve-stem disconnected and clamped se- 
curely. 



BREAKDOWNS. 



195 



If a transmission bar hanger is broken, block the 
link solid on the top and bottom at the point of cut-off, 
which will enable the engine to handle the train over the 
division (Fig. I, Plate j6). 





PLATE 77. 

Cracked or Broken Steam-Chest. A cracked or 
broken steam-chest is usually caused by reversing the 
engine when running at a high rate of speed, with the 
throttle closed. This causes the cylinders to become 
air compressors. High pressure is forced into the 
steam-chest, and, having no means of escape, accumu- 
lates at a higher pressure than the steam-chest is de- 
signed to withstand. Modern locomotives are pro- 
vided with steam-chest relief valves for the purpose 
of relieving excessive pressure and eliminating the 
possibility of steam-chest ruptures. 

When a steam-chest is cracked and it is not too seri- 
ous to interfere with the running or steaming of the en- 



196 



BREAKDOWNS. 



gine, or the vision of the engineman is not obscured, the 
train should proceed. If, however, the crack is large 
enough to interfere with the running or steaming of the 
engine, the oil pipe should be taken off, the casing re- 
moved, the nuts holding the steam-chest cover in place 
slackened up and iron wedges or nails inserted between 
the studs and steam-chest in such a manner as to wedge 
the broken parts together. The nuts holding the steam- 
chest cover should then be tightened, securing the cover 
in place (Plate 78), and the casing and oil pipe replaced. 
If the studs are inside or pass through the steam-chest, 
a chain should be placed around the chest and wedges 
driven between the chain and chest. This will draw 
the steam-chest together and prevent the steam from es- 
caping. 




PLATE 78. 

If the steam-chest breaks, the broken parts should 
be removed, the supply ports to the steam-chest blocked 
with dry pine, and wooden blocks used to build up on 
the blocking. If there are enough studs left on the steam- 
chest, a fish plate can be placed across the blocking to 
hold it in place (Fig. 1, Plate 79). If there are no studs 
left, a jack, chain and wedges should be used for holding 
the blocking in place (Fig. 2, Plate 79). If this cannot 
be done it will be necessary to have the engine towed in. 



198 BREAKDOWNS. 

Broken Piston Rod. If a piston rod breaks off close 
to the piston head or close to the crosshead, and it has 
not knocked out the front cylinder head, the head should 
be taken off and the piston removed from the cylinder, 
leaving the main rod intact. 

Broken Rocker Arm. When a lower rocker arm be- 
comes broken, the arm should be plumbed and the valve- 
stem disconnected and clamped with the valve on the 
center of the seat. The arm may remain in place pro- 
vided it does not strike any other part of the engine. 

Broken Eccentric, Strap or Blade. If the back-up 
eccentric, strap or blade is broken, the broken parts 
should be disconnected, the reverse lever placed in the 
full forward gear, and the train taken to the nearest 
siding. The go-ahead strap and blade should then be 
taken down, the valve placed centrally on its seat, the 
valve-stem disconnected and clamped securely, but the 
main rod is not to be disconnected. If the go-ahead ec- 
centric, strap, or blade should break, take down the 
broken parts, take off the back-up eccentric strap and 
blade, and clamp the valve as above described. 

If the main rod on the disabled side of the engine is 
not taken down, the cylinder should be lubricated by re- 
moving the indicator plug, if the engine is so equipped, 
oiling the cylinder, and replacing the plug. If the engine 
has no plugs, the front cylinder head should be wedged 
open, or the valve shifted just enough to show a little 
steam at the cylinder cocks, and the cylinder oiled with 
the lubricator. 

Broken Link Saddle Pin, Link Hanger or Lifting 
Arm. If a link saddle pin, link hanger or lifting arm 
is broken, the broken parts should be removed, and 
the link blocked in the same manner as for a broken 
transmission bar hanger. 

If the link hanger is broken, the broken parts should 



BREAKDOWNS. 199 

be removed and the link blocked solidly, both top and 
bottom, at the point of cut-off, which will enable the en- 
gine to handle the train over the division with one 
link blocked up. Care must be taken not to drop the 
reverse lever low enough to allow the lifting arm to pass 
beneath the link which is blocked. On an engine with the 
tumbling shaft below the frame, care should be taken not 
to raise the lifting arm high enough to pass behind the 
link. In both cases the engineman should guard against 
reversing the engine by fastening the reverse lever at the 
quadrant, either by a set-screw, by tightening up on the 
ratchet, or by placing a block in the opposite link. 

To disconnect for a broken link block pin, the valve 
should be placed centrally upon its seat, the valve-stem 
disconnected and clamped, as shown in Plate 72, and the 
rocker arm swung so that the link will not strike it. 
If this cannot be done, the rocker arm should be re- 
moved if possible ; if not, it would be necessary to take 
down the eccentric straps and blades from that side and 
tie the link in order to prevent it from swinging. 

Broken Crosshead. If a crosshead breaks, the main 
rod should be taken down, the valve-stem disconnected, 
and the valve clamped centrally on its seat. If enough of 
the crosshead is left to block it securely, this should be 
done. If not, the piston should be removed from the 
cylinder. 

Bent Pin, Main or Side Rod. If the main rod is 
badly bent, or the main pin bent, the rod should be re- 
moved, the valve clamped, the crosshead blocked, and, if 
the side rod is left on, a collar should be placed on the 
pin to keep the rod in place. If the side rod is left up 
the keys should be slacked up. If there is danger of its 
running hot, however, it should be taken down and the 
engine brought in light with one main rod up. 

Broken Front End. An engine with a broken front 



200 



BREAKDOWNS. 



end can be brought in by boarding up the opening, pro- 
tecting it with the cab curtain or filling it up with strips 
of sod. 

An empty barrel could be placed over the smoke arch 
of an engine with a broken stack, and would serve to 
bring the engine in light. 

BROKEN OR BURNT GRATES, 

If the grates are burned out or become broken on 
the road, they should be blocked with brick, fish plates 
or anything else available for the purpose, if they are 
not too badly broken or burned. If the grates are en- 
tirely gone the engine will have to be towed in. 

BROKEN DRIVING OR TRUCK CELLAR. 

If a driving box cellar, its lugs, or an engine truck 
cellar is broken, a temporary one should be made out 
of wood, and a piece of rubber hose tied to the binder 
to hold the cellar against the journal. The rubber hose 
will act as a spring for the upward and downward move- 
ment of the boxes. 

BROKEN ENGINE TRUCK WHEELS. 

If a piece breaks out of right No. I engine truck 
wheel, a suitable fulcrum should be used, one end being 
placed on a tie and the other end up under the journal. 
This fulcrum should be placed as close to the box of the 
disabled wheel as possible, and the engine moved so as 




PLATE 80. 



BREAKDOWNS. 



20I 



to raise the wheel. The good wheel on the opposite side 
of the engine being in contact with the rail, will, in turn- 
ing, bring the good part of the broken wheel to the rail. 
The wheel should then be secured by means of a wedge 
or chain to keep it from revolving (Plate 80). The wheel 
can then be skidded to the nearest siding, and an extra 
pair of wheels and men to put them in sent for. 

BROKEN ENGINE TRUCK AXLE. 

If the axle is broken outside of the box, a chain 
should be placed around the engine and truck frames, a 
fulcrum placed under the buffer beam (commonly called 
pilot beam) and against a good tie and the engine moved 
back. This will raise both the engine and truck frames. 
Blocking should then be placed between the ground and 
the pedestal brace of the engine truck, the main frame 
lowered and the truck frame allowed to rest on the block- 
ing, thus allowing the slack of the chain to be taken up. 
The engine frame should then be raised in the same man- 
ner, bringing the truck frame a little higher than its 
normal position. The chain should then be crossed from 
the truck frame on the disabled side to the engine frame 
on the opposite side. This is done for the purpose of 
keeping the good flange against the rail. Blocking should 
also be placed between truck and engine frames on right 
and left No. 2, for the purpose of holding up the right 
front corner of the engine truck frame {Plate 81). 




PLATE 81. 



202 



BREAKDOWNS. 



BROKEN PONY TRUCK AXLE. 

If the journal on the pony truck of a Mogul engine 
is broken, the pilot beam should be fulcrumed up, thus 
raising the engine frame, the pony truck wheels removed, 
and blocking inserted between the bottom of the boiler 
and the top of the cross equalizer. Blocking should also 
be placed over the front driving boxes (Fig. I, Plate 82), 
after which the engine can proceed very slowly. If the 
pony truck cannot be removed, the engine frame should 
be raised in the manner described, the pony truck frame 
should be chained to the engine frame on both sides and 
blocked between the tops of both forward driving boxes 
and the lower surface of the engine frame, also blocking 
between the top of the cross equalizer and the bottom of 
the boiler (Fig. 2, Plate 82). 




' FIG. 1— PLATE 82. 

If an engine truck wheel or axle is broken on a con- 
solidated or ten-wheel engine, the engine truck frame can 
be chained to the main frame, as described, but instead 
of using a fulcrum under the pilot beam, the forward 



BREAKDOWNS. 



203 



drivers should be run up on wedges, which would raise 
the engine truck for the purpose of chaining it for a 
double truck wheel or axle. (Plate 81). 




FIG. 3— PLATE 82. 



204 BREAKDOWNS. 

BROKEN PONY TRUCK CENTER PIN, EQUALIZER 
OR HANGER. 

In case the center pin of a pony truck or the front end 
of a long equalizer should break, place a fulcrum under 
the forward end of the long equalizer and move the en- 
gine back, raising the front end of the long equalizer 
higher than its normal position. Then place a tie across 
and on top of the main frame and chain the front end 
of the long equalizer to the tie and remove the broken 
parts, allowing the truck to remain, as shown in Fig. 3, 
Plate 82. 

If the long equalizer is broken at the fulcrum, place 
a fulcrum under the pilot beam, moving the engine in 
either direction, thus raising the main frame, which will 
free the spring rigging. Then place a block between the 
lower part of the boiler and the cross equalizer. If the 
pilot does not clear the rail sufficiently after letting the 
engine down, blocking should be placed on top of both 
forward driving boxes. The blocking could be placed 
over the front driving boxes by running No. 2 driver 
on a wedge instead of fulcruming up the front end 
(Fig. 4, Plate 82). 

If the back hanger of the long equalizer is broken, 
place a fulcrum under the pilot beam so as to insert a 
block between the cross equalizer and the lower part of 
the boiler, in order to bring the cross equalizer to nor- 
mal position. Then move the engine off the fulcrum and 
place a fulcrum under the back end of the long equalizer 
and move the engine ahead; fulcrum up the back end 
of the equalizer higher than its normal position; then 
chain from the back end of the long equalizer to the 
cross equalizer and remove the block on top of the cross 
equalizer and underneath the boiler (Fig. 5, Plate 82). 
BROKEN TENDER TRUCK WHEEL. 

If a piece breaks out of a tender truck wheel, a tie 
or frog should be placed in a slanting position under 



BREAKDOWNS. 



205 




FIG. 4— PLATE 82. 




FIG. .5 -PLATE 82. 



206 



BREAKDOWNS. 



the tank truck box or some part of the tender truck 
frame and blocked in such a manner as to hold it in 
this position. The engine should then be moved suffi- 
ciently to skid that side up high enough for the flat 
part of the wheel to clear the rail, after which the 
wheel on the opposite side is allowed to turn, bringing 
the broken part of the wheel to the top. It should then 
be blocked in the same manner as for an engine truck 
wheel (Plate 80). These wheels can then be slid to the 
nearest siding and a new pair of wheels ordered to re- 
place the old ones. 

BROKEN TENDER TRUCK JOURNAL. 
If a journal is broken outside or inside of the wheel, 
a tie or frog should be placed in a slanting position on 
each side, under the tank truck boxes or the truck frame 
of the broken journal. By moving the engine, both sides 
can be skidded up at the same time. When the truck 
frame is raised sufficiently, an oak tie should be placed 
on top of the rails and under both sides of the truck 
frame, just ahead of or behind the pair of wheels with 
the broken journal. The truck frame should then be let 
down, so that it rests on top of the tie, and secured with 
a chain. The wheels with the broken journal should 
then be removed or fastened in such a manner that they 
can do no further damage (Plate 83), the tank skidded 
to the nearest siding and assistance sent for. 




PLATE 83. 



BREAKDOWNS. 



207 



BROKEN TENDER TRUCK SPRING. 

If a tender truck spring is broken, it will be neces- 
sary to fulcrum up the tank on the side or corner on 
which the spring is broken. If it is a semi-elliptic 
spring extending from one truck box to the other the 
blocking should be done between the top of the bol- 
ster and the bottom sill of the tank. If a swing truck, 
the blocking should be between the bolster and the 
sand board instead of the spring. 

BROKEN ENGINE TRUCK SPRING OR EQUALIZER. 

If an engine truck spring or equalizer is broken, one 
end of a fulcrum post of the proper length should be 
placed on a tie and the other end placed under the jaw 
of the engine truck frame on the side on which the 
spring or equalizer is broken, and the engine moved 
ahead or back. This will raise the corner of the en- 
gine truck frame higher than its normal position. 

If the spring is broken a block should be placed on 
top of the equalizer and under the engine truck frame. 

r 




PLATE 84. 



The opposite corner of the engine truck frame on the 
same side should then be raised in the same manner and 
blocks placed (Plate 84). 

If the equalizer is broken, the truck frame should be 
elevated in the manner just described and the block? 
placed on top of the engine truck boxes and under the 
engine truck frame (Plate 85). 



208 



BREAKDOWNS. 




S 



X 



=?■ 




PLATE 85. 
BROKEN SIDE ROD. 

If a side rod breaks on an eight-wheel engine the 
opposite rods to those which are broken should also 
be taken off. On a ten-wheel engine with the knuckle 
joint back of the main pin, if the back section of the 
rod breaks, it will be necessary to take down the 
opposite rod. If a forward section breaks on a ten- 
wheel engine all side rods must be taken down. If the 
forward or back section breaks on a consolidated engine 
the opposite rods should be taken down. If an inter- 
mediate side rod breaks all the rods must be taken down. 

Some of the modern engines cannot run under their 
own steam with their side rods off. This is due to the 
tendency of locomotive builders to use long main rods 
and short eccentric blades. To secure this result, the 
eccentrics are not placed on the main driving wheel axle, 
but on the one just ahead. Therefore with the side rods 
off, a slip of the main drivers would throw them out of 
line with the drivers carrying the eccentrics and the en- 
gine would have to be towed in. This type of construc- 
tion is in use principally on switch engines which are 
seldom out on the road. 

BROKEN ENGINE FRAME. 

If a single frame is broken between the main driver 
and the cylinder, the disabled side of the engine should 
be disconnected and the engine taken in light. If it is 



BREAKDOWNS. 



209 



a double frame and it does not open too far, the engine 
should take in as many cars of perishable freight as 
can be handled without further damage. If there is 
danger of further damage, the engine should go in 
light, being very careful when starting. If the lower 
rail of the frame is broken, start the engine and see 
how far it will open up, and if there is no danger of 
breaking the upper rail, proceed with a full train. 

If the top rail of the frame is broken back of the 
main driver, the side rods should be taken down, and the 
engine can then proceed with as many cars as it' can 
handle without further damage. If the break is in the 
lower rail the engine can proceed to the terminal with the 
'entire train. 

BROKEN DRIVING TIRES. 

Forward Tire, Ten- Wheel Engine. If one of the 
forward tires of a ten-wheel engine breaks, the wheel 
should be run up on a wedge to raise it higher than 
the thickness of the tire, making allowance for set- 
tling, the cellar removed if possible, a block fitted 
in place of the cellar and a block placed between 
the bottom of the driving box and the top of the 
binder. If the cellar cannot be removed, a nut should 
be placed on top of the binder under each jaw of 
the driving box, blocking placed between the binder 
cellar, and the front end of the front equalizer chained 
to the lower rail of the frame (Plate 86). The reason 
for blocking in this manner when the cellar cannot be 




PLATE 86. 



2IO 



BREAKDOWNS. 



removed is, that if a block were placed on top of the bind- 
er the full width of the driving box, there being more 
weight on the driving box than on the cellar, and the 
cellar having more surface on the blocking than the driv- 
ing box width, the driving box would gradually work its 
way into the wooden blocking, placing all the weight on 
the cellar and cellar bolts, which could not bear it. On 
heavy power where the pedestal is strong enough to carry 
the weight of the driver, it will not be necessary to chain 
the equalizer, but otherwise the equalizer must be chained 
as in Plate 86, or with overhung spring rigging, a block 
placed in the spring saddle. If the side rods are not 
damaged they should be left up. 

In all cases of broken tires the driver brake should 
be cut out. A full train can be handled when the break 
is on a front tire. 

Middle Tire. If a middle driving tire breaks it 
will be necessary to block the engine in the manner 
described and as shown in Plate 87, and to proceed 
without a train. 




PLATE 87. 

Back Tire. If a back tire breaks the blocking 
should be done in the same manner as for a middle 
tire, but while the wheel is on the wedge, blocking 
should be placed on top of the driving box and under 
the frame on the driver ahead of the back driver, or if 
there is a chain on hand a tie should be placed from the 
deck of the engine to the deck of the tank, and a chain 
placed around the back end of the main frame on the 



BREAKDOWNS. 



211 



disabled side, and around the tie. This style of blocking 
is shown on Plate 91. It will also be necessary to build 
up between the bed of the tank and the tie in order to 
take up all lost motion of the chain, so that when the 
wheel is run off the wedge the chain or block on top of 
the driving box will hold up the rear end of the engine 
frame and prevent the driver from settling to the rail. 
Plate 88 shows a block placed s on the middle driving box 
and under the frame. While going around curves, a 
wedge or tie should be placed between the engine and 
tank on the inner side of the curve, or a chain placed 
from the disabled side of the engine frame to the tank 
frame on the opposite side. The purpose of the tie, 
wedge or chain is to prevent the good wheel on the op- 
posite side from dropping off the rail. It will be neces- 
sary to proceed with caution while rounding curves and 
passing over frogs and switches. 




Forward Tire, Eight- Wheel Engine. If a forward 
tire of an eight-wheel engine breaks, the forward driver 
should be run on a wedge considerably thicker than 
the tire in order to allow for settling, the cellar re- 
moved and a block substituted, and the space between 
the pedestal brace and the cellar blocked up solidly 
(Plate 89). If the engine is equipped with an overhung 
spring rigging, a block should be placed between the 
spring saddle and the top rail of the frame ; if an under- 
hung spring rigging, the forward end of the equalizer 



212 



BREAKDOWNS. 




PLATE 89. 

should be chained up. The weight on the driving box of 
all types of engines with a broken tire must be relieved, 
when the pedestal is not strong enough to withstand 
the weight. If the forward tire is broken on an engine 
having an underhung spring rigging, and the equalizer 
is chained up, a block should be placed over the back 
driving box to help carry the weight (Plate 90). 




PLATE 90. 

Back Tire, Eight-Wheel Engine. If a back tire on 
an eight-wheel engine breaks, it should be blocked up 
in the same manner as for the tire on a back driver oi 
a ten- wheel engine (Plates 88 or 91). 

Trailer Tires. If a trailer tire breaks, run the 
wheel up on a wedge a little higher than the thick- 
ness of the tire, remove the cellar and place a block 
between the bottom of the journal and the box. A 
block should then be placed between the bottom of 
the box and the pedestal, the cross equalizer blocked 
up in the safety hanger, or the equalizer chained to 
the frame and a tie or rail placed over the deck of the 



BREAKDOWNS. 



213 



engine and the deck of the tank and chained to the 
main frame (Plate 91), wedges being used to take up 
the slack in the chain. This manner of chaining serves 




214 BREAKDOWNS. 

to hold up the back end of the engine and also to keep 
the good wheel to the rail while passing around curves. 

Atlantic Type Forward and Back Driving Tires. 
If a front tire on an Atlantic type of engine is broken, 
the forward wheel should be run on a wedge, the cellar 
removed and a block inserted in its place. It should 
then be blocked solidly between the substituted cellar and 
the pedestal brace, and a block placed between the spring 
saddle and the frame. If the cellar cannot be removed, 
a nut or block of iron should be placed between the ped- 
estal brace and the jaws of the driving box and blocks 
placed between the pedestal and the cellar to hold the 
cellar in place (Fig. i, Plate 92). If the main tire is 
broken it should be elevated in the same manner (Fig. 2, 
Plate 92). 

BROKEN SPRING, HANGER OR EQUALIZER— 
EIGHT-WHEEL ENGINE. 

Forward Hanger or Spring. If the forward spring 
hanger, or the spring on an eight-wheel engine, with 
overhung spring rigging breaks, a block should be 
placed on top of the back driving box, if there is room, 
before raising the back driver. The purpose of this 
block is to raise the frame as high as possible with an 
ordinary wedge 1 . A wedge should then be placed on the 
rail, the back driver run upon it, thus taking the weight 
off the forward box, and blocking inserted solidly be- 
tween the forward box and the frame. The broken 
spring or hanger should then be removed, if necessary, 
and the engine run off the wedge. The forward driver 
should now be run on the wedge in order to relieve the 
equalizer, the front end of the equalizer pried up, and 
blocking placed between the forward end of the equal- 
izer and the frame. The block should then be removed 
from the back driver, all loose parts taken away and 
the engine run off the wedge (Plate 93). 



BREAKDOWNS. 



215 




Tu- 



rn 

i 



2l6 



BREAKDOWNS. 

a 




PLATE 93. 

Back Spring or Hanger. If the back spring or 
hanger is broken the same method of blocking will 
apply, but in the reverse manner (Plate 94). 




PLATE 94. 

Equalizer with Overhung Spring Rigging. If the 

equalizer of an engine with overhung spring rigging 
is broken at the fulcrum, the front driver should be 
run on a wedge, a block placed on top of the back 
driving box and the forward driver run down. The back 
driver should then be run on a wedge, a block placed on 
top of the forward driving box, all loose parts removed 
and the back driver run off the wedge (Plate 95). 




PLATE 95. 



BREAKDOWNS. 



217 



Forward and Back Spring with Underhung Rigging. 

If the front spring of an underhung eight-wheel en- 
gine is broken, the back driver should be run on a wedge, 
a block placed on top of the front driving box and the 
back driver run off the wedge. The front driver should 
then be run on a wedge, thus relieving the back spring 
rigging, the forward end of the equalizer pried up and 
chained to the lower rail of the frame, or the forward end 
of the back spring blocked down (Fig; 1, Plate 96) and 
the forward driver run off the wedge. 

If the back spring is broken the engine can be elevated 
and blocked (Fig. 2, Plate 96) by proceeding in the re- 
verse manner to that described for front spring (Fig. 1, 
Plate 96). 




FIG. 2— PLATE 96. 

Equalizer Broken at the Fulcrum with Underhung 
Rigging. If an equalizer is broken at the fulcrum 
on an engine with underhung spring rigging the back 
driver should be run on a wedge, a block placed on 
top of the forward driving box and the driver run 



218 



BREAKDOWNS. 



off the wedge. The forward driver should then be 
run on a wedge, a block placed on top of the back 
driving box, and a block also placed between the for- 
ward end of the back spring and the lower rail of the 
frame. The forward driver should then be run off 
the wedge, the back driver run on a wedge, a block 
placed between the back end of the forward spring and 
the lower rail of the frame and the block removed from 
the top of the front driving box. The back driver should 
next be run off the wedge and the front driver on a 
wedge, the block removed from the top of the back driv- 
ing box and the front driver run down (Plate 97). 




PLATE 97. 

Back Hanger of the Back Spring with Underhung 
Rigging. If the back hanger of the back spring of 
an eight-wheel underhung engine is broken, the back 
driver should be run on a wedge, a block placed on 
top of the front driving box, the back driver run off 
the wedge. The forward driver should then be run 




PLATE 98. 



BREAKDOWNS. 



219 



on a wedge, a block placed between the back end 
of the back spring and the lower rail of the frame, 
and the forward driver run off the wedge. Xext run 
the back driver on the wedge, remove the block from 
the front driving box, and run the back driver off the 
wedge. The engine is then ready to proceed (Plate 
98). 

Forward Hanger of the Front Spring with Under- 
hung Rigging. If the forward hanger of the front 
spring of an eight-wheel underhung engine is broken, 
the back driver should be run on a wedge. This 
raises the frame off the front driving box and per- 
mits a block to be placed on top of the front driv- 
ing box and under the main frame. The back driver 
should then be run off the wedge and the front driver 
on a wedge, which will relieve the tension of the 
spring rigging. The front end of the front spring 
should then be pried down, a block placed under the 
lower rail of the frame and on top of the front end 
of the spring, the front driver then run off the wedge and 
the back driver again run on a wedge, and the block re- 
moved from the front driving box. After running the 
back driver off the wedge the engine is then ready to pro- 
ceed (Plate 99). 




PLATE 99. 



220 



BREAKDOWNS. 



BROKEN SPRING, HANGER OR EQUALIZER— TEN- 
WHEEL ENGINES WITH UNDERHUNG RIGGING. 

A six-wheel connected engine with an underhung 
spring rigging is one on which all springs and equalizers 
are hung under the lower rail of the frame. If the back 
hanger of the back spring, the front hanger of the mid- 
dle spring, front hanger of the front spring, back hanger 
of the front spring, the front spring or the front equalizer, 
is broken, the back driver should be run on a wedge, an 
iron block placed on top of the middle driving box, the 
back driver run off the wedge, the middle driver run on a 
wedge, blocking placed solidly over the front and back 
driving boxes and the main driver then run off the wedge. 
Plate ioo shows the frame elevated and blocks placed 
on top of both front and back drivers so that if any of 
the following parts are broken the blocks can be placed 
in the following manner : 




. PLATE 100. 

Forward Hanger of the Front Spring. If the for- 
ward hanger of the forward spring is broken, a block 
should be placed between the forward end of the front 
spring and the lower rail of the frame at 1. 

Back Hanger of the Back Spring. If the back 
hanger of the back spring is broken, a block should 
be placed between the back end of the back spring and 
the lower rail of the frame at 7. 

Front Spring. If the front spring is broken, the for- 
ward end of the front equalizer 3 should be chained up, 
or a block placed between the forward end of the mid- 



BREAKDOWNS. 221 

die spring and the lower rail of the frame at 4. In case 
of doubt as to whether the middle and back springs 
would carry the weight, a block should be placed over 
the front driving box 5, so that it can carry its own 
weight. 

Front Equalizer. If the front equalizer is broken 
a block should be placed between the back end of the 
front spring 2 and the lower rail of the frame, and an- 
other block placed between the forward end of the 
middle spring at 4 and the lower rail of the frame. 

Front Hanger of the Middle Spring. If the front 
hanger of the middle spring is broken, a block should 
be placed between the forward end of the middle spring 
at 4 and the lower rail of the frame and back end of 
the front equalizer 6 chained up, or a block placed be- 
tween the back end of the front driving spring at 2 and 
the lower rail of the frame. On some classes of en- 
gines there is a safety hanger, and when so equipped, 
instead of chaining the equalizer, blocking should be 
placed between the safety hanger and the equalizer. 
The middle driver should then be run on the wedge, 
the blocking removed from the front and back driving 
boxes, the middle driver run down, and the back driver 
run on a wedge, and the block removed from the mid- 
dle driving box. The engine is then ready to proceed. 

Middle Spring. If the middle spring is broken on 
an engine with underhung spring rigging, the back 
driver should be run on a wedge, a block placed on 
top of the middle driving box, the back driver run 
off the wedge, the middle driver run on a wedge and 
the forward end of the back equalizer 1 chained, or 
blocking placed between the safety hanger and the 
equalizer 2. If there is no safety hanger or chain, a 
block should be placed between the forward end of 
the back spring 3 and the lower rail of the frame. 



222 



BREAKDOWNS. 



The back end of the forward equalizer 4 should also 
be chained up, or blocking placed between the safety 
hanger and equalizer 5, or the back end of spring 6 and 
the lower rail of the frame (Plate 101), and the middle 
driver run off the wedge. 




PLATE 101. 

Back Equalizer. If the back equalizer is broken at 
the fulcrum on an engine with underhung spring rig- 
ging, the back driver should be run on a wedge, a 
block placed over the middle driving box, the back 
driver run off the wedge and the middle driver run 
on a wedge, relieving the back spring. A block should 
then be placed between the forward end of the back 
spring and the lower rail of the frame, and another 
block placed on top of the back driving box to 
assist in elevating, eliminating the necessity of running 
the back driver on a high wedge. The middle driver 
should then be run off the wedge, the back driver run on 
a wedge, blocking placed between the back end of the 
middle spring and the lower rail of the frame, the block 
removed from the top of the middle driving box, the 
back driver run off the wedge, the middle driver run on 
a wedge, and the block removed from the top of the back 
driving box (Plate 102). After running down the mid- 
dle driver the engine is ready to proceed. 

Back Spring. If the back spring is broken, the 
middle driver should be run on a wedge, a block 
placed on top of the back driving box and under the 



BREAKDOWNS. 



223 




PLATE 102. 

frame, the middle driver run off the wedge and the 
back driver run on a wedge, which relieves the weight 
from the spring rigging. The back end of the back 
equalizer should then be chained up or a block placed 
in the safety hanger 2, or blocking placed between 
the back end of the middle spring and the lower rail 
of the frame at 3. Plate 103 shows the block on the 
back driving box with the wheel on a wedge and the 
equalizer chained; 2 shows where the block is placed 
when the engine is equipped with safety hanger; and 3 
shows where blocks are placed in case there is no chain 
or safety hanger. The back driver should then be run 
off the wedge, and all loose parts removed to prevent 
further damage. 




PLATE 103. 

BROKEN SPRING, HANGER OR EQUALIZER WITH 
OVERHUNG RIGGING— TEN-WHEEL ENGINE. 

If a front spring hanger, front spring or back 
hanger of front spring breaks on an engine with 
overhung spring rigging, and the equalizers are be- 
tween the top and lower rails of the frame, the back 
driver should be run on a wedge, a block placed 



224 



BREAKDOWNS. 





BREAKDOWNS. 225 

on top of the middle driving box, the back driver 
run down, the middle driver run on a wedge, a 
block placed on the front driving box and as much block- 
ing as possible placed on the back driving box, or if the 
back driver has a driving box equalizer, blocking should 
be placed between the equalizer and the under side of the 
top rail of the frame. The middle driver should then be 
run off the wedge, relieving the spring rigging. As the 
engine frame is held up by the blocking placed on the 
driving boxes, the front end of the front equalizer can 
be raised with a lever and blocking placed between the 
equalizer and the top of the lower rail of the frame. 
The middle driver should then be run on a wedge, the 
blocking removed from the back driving box or equal- 
izer, the middle driver run down, the back driver run on 
a wedge, the blocking removed from the middle driving 
box, the back driver run off the wedge and the blocking 
is finished. Plate 104 shows the equalizer blocked up 
and a block placed on top of the front driving box and 
under the frame. 

Front Equalizer. If the front equalizer is broken 
at the fulcrum post, and the spring or hangers are 
of the stirrup type, the frame should be elevated in 
the same manner as for a broken front spring and 
blocking placed in the back hanger of the front spring 
and the front hanger of the middle spring (Plate 105). 
If this could not be done, as would be the case if a 
single spring hanger were used, the back driver should 
be run on a wedge and a block placed on the middle 
driving box. The back driver should then be run 
off the wedge, the middle driver run on a wedge and 
a block placed on the front driving box to help carry 
the weight. The front end of the back equalizer 
should then be pried up and blocking placed on the 
top of the lower rail of the frame and underneath the 



226 



BREAKDOWNS. 





BREAKDOWNS. 227 

front end of the equalizer, the middle driver run down, 
the back driver run on a wedge, the block removed from 
the top of the middle driving box, and the back driver run 
off the wedge. The engine is then ready to proceed, 
the weight being carried on the front driver and the back 
spring (Plate 106). 

Middle Spring. If the middle spring is broken the 
back driver should be run on a wedge, a block placed 
on top of the middle driving box, the back driver run 
down, the middle driver run on a wedge, both ends 
of the equalizer nearest the broken spring raised with 
a lever and blocking placed on top of the lower rail 
of the frame and under the ends of the equalizers 
(Plate 107), and the middle driver run down. 

Back Spring. If the back spring (or driving box 
equalizer, when the engine is so equipped), is broken, 
the middle driver should be run on a wedge, a block 
placed on top of the back driving box, the middle 
driver run down, the back driver run on a wedge, the 
back end of the equalizer pried up, blocking placed 
on top of the lower rail of the frame and under the 
back end of the back equalizer (Fig. 1, Plate 108), and 
the back driver run off the wedge. The engine is then 
ready to proceed. 

BLOCKING ENGINES EQUIPPED WITH DRIVING 
BOX EQUALIZERS. 

If the back spring or hanger is broken on an en- 
gine equipped with driving box equalizers, run the 
back driver on a wedge, place a block on top of the 
middle driving box, run the back driver off the wedge, 
and run the middle driver on a wedge. This will release 
the spring rigging. Then place a block between the 
driving box equalizer, on top of the hanger, and under 
the rail of the frame. Next run the middle driver off 
the wedge, the back driver on a wedge, remove the 



228 



BREAKDOWNS. 








1 


^ 




BREAKDOWNS. 229 

blocking from the main driving box and run the back 
driver off the wedge (Fig.»2, Plate 108). The engine is 
then ready to proceed. If the equalizers or springs are 
broken on a consolidated engine, the frame should be 
raised and the blocking placed in the same manner. 

The frame of an engine with two or more drivers 
hung with driving box equalizers, or with driving boxes 
so designed that blocks cannot be placed on their tops, 
can be raised and the springs blocked, if a block can be 
placed on top of the front driving box, by running No. 
2 or 3 driver on a wedge, thus raising the frame so that 
a block can be placed on top of front No. 1 driving box, 
and then running No. 2 or 3 driver off the wedge. A 
fulcrum, such as the half of a tie, should then be taken, 
one end placed on a tie and the other end under the 
back end of the frame, and the engine moved, which will 
raise the frame and relieve the spring rigging so that 
any part of the spring or equalizer can be blocked. The 
engine should then be run off the fulcrum, and the block 
removed from the front driving box. 

FORWARD DRIVING SPRING BROKEN ON ENGINES 

HAVING PONY TRUCK WITH EQUALIZER 

ATTACHED TO CROSS EQUALIZER. 

If a front driving spring breaks on an engine having 
a pony truck and a long equalizer attached to the cross 
equalizer, the cross equalizer will drop down on the 
frame on the side on which the spring is broken. One 
end of a fulcrum post should be placed on a tie and the 
other end under the back end of the truck equalizer, the 
engine moved until the equalizer is raised higher than 
its normal position and blocking placed between the top 
of the frame and the cross equalizer. If the clearance 
between the pilot and the top of the rail is sufficient, it 
will not be necessary to place a block on the front driv- 
ing box. But if the pilot has settled and the clearance 



230 



BREAKDOWNS. 



is insufficient, No. 2 driver should be run on a wedge, 
a block placed on top of No. 1 driving box (Plate 109), 
and No. 2 driver run down. 




PLATE 109. 



BROKEN SPRING, HANGER OR EQUALIZER— AT- 
LANTIC TYPE ENGINES. 

If the front spring, front hanger, or the back hanger 
of the front spring is broken on an Atlantic type engine 
having spring rigging, as shown in Plate no, the back 
driver should be run on a wedge, a block placed on top 
of the front driving box, another block placed on top of 
the trailer box and under the trailer frame, the back 
driver run off the wedge, one end of a fulcrum placed on 
a tie and the other end under the front end of the long 
equalizer, and the engine moved, thus raising the equal- 
izer. If the spring is broken, a block should be placed 
on top of the frame and in the stirrup hanger of the back 
spring, or a block placed on top of the lower rail of the 
frame and under the front end of the equalizer (Plate 
no), and the back driver run up on a wedge and the 
block removed from the trailer box. 

Front Equalizer. If the front equalizer is broken 
the trailer should be run on a wedge, a block placed 
on the back driving box, the trailer run down, the 
back driver run on a wedge, a block placed in the 
stirrup of the back hanger of the front spring under 
the top rail of the frame, and another block placed 
on top of the trailer box to hold the frame when the 



BREAKDOWNS. 



231 




232 



BREAKDOWNS. 




BREAKDOWNS. 233 

back driver is run off the wedge. If the spring rig- 
ging is not free, the forward end of the side equalizer 
should be staked up by means of a fulcrum and a 
block placed in the stirrup of the front hanger of 
the back driver spring and under the top rail of the 
frame. The back driver should then be run on a wedge, 
the block removed from the top of the trailer box, the 
back driver run down, the trailer run on a wedge, the 
block on top of the back driving box removed and the 
trailer run off the wedge. (Plate in). 

Back Driving Spring. If the back driving spring 
is broken, the trailer should be run on a wedge, a block 
placed on top of the back driving box, the trailer run 
down, the back driver run on a wedge and a block 
placed on top of the main frame and in the front hanger 
of the main spring. A block should also be placed in 
the back hanger of the main spring on top of the main 
frame (Plate 112), and the back driver run off the 
wedge. 

Side Equalizer. If the side equalizer is broken, 
the trailer should be run on a wedge, a block placed 
on top of the back driving box, the trailer run down, 
the back driver run on a wedge, a block placed on 
top of the cross equalizer and under the main frame 
and another block placed on top of the trailer box. 
The back driver should then be run down, the trailer 
run on a wedge, a block placed in the stirrup of the back 
hanger of the main spring under the frame, and the 
block on top of the back driving box removed. The 
trailer should then be run down, the back driver run on a 
wedge, the block removed from the top of the trailer box, 
and the back driver run off the wedge (Plate 113). 

Broken Trailer Springs on Engines Having Inside 
or Outside Bearings. If the trailer spring breaks 
on an engine of the Atlantic type, having trailer 



234 



BREAKDOWNS. 



bearings inside the wheels, the back driver should 
be run on a wedge, a block placed on the trailer box, 
the back driver run off the wedge and the trailer run 
on a wedge. The back end of the long equalizer 





BREAKDOWNS. 235 

should then be pried up, a block placed on top of 
the lower rail of the frame and under the back end 
of the long equalizer (Plate 114), and the trailer run 
off the wedge. The engine is then ready to proceed. 

If the trailer spring on an Atlantic type of engine 
with outside trailer bearing is broken, the back driver 
should be run on a wedge, a block placed on the trailer 
box and under the supplementary frame, and the back 
driver run down. A fulcrum should be taken and used 
as a stake, one end being placed on a tie and the other 
end under the cross equalizer, the engine moved to raise 
it to position and blocking placed in the "U" hanger and 
under the cross equalizer (Plate 115). 

Substituting for Broken Trailer Spring or Equalizer. 
When substituting for a broken trailer spring, a piece 
of rail or tie should be used, one end of a fulcrum should 
be placed on a tie and the other end under the cross 
equalizer, and the engine moved, raising the cross equal- 
izer up under the supplementary frame. Blocking should 
then be placed in the "U" hanger and under the cross 
equalizer, so as to hold the cross equalizer in place, and 
the engine moved off the fulcrum. A fulcrum, should 
then be placed underneath the main frame back of the 
trailer, and the engine moved, thus elevating the main 
frame. One end of the substitute should be chained to 
the supplementary frame and the other end to the cross 
equalizer (Plate 116), the engine run off the fulcrum, 
and the blocking removed from the "U" hanger. 

If a cross equalizer is broken and a substitute is used, 
fulcrums should be placed under the back ends of both 
side equalizers and the engine moved so as to raise the 
side equalizers higher than their normal positions. A 
rail should then be placed in the "U" hanger and under 
the back end of both side equalizers and blocked up as 
high as possible on both sides in the hanger. The engine 



230 



BREAKDOWNS. 





BREAKDOWNS. 237 

should then be run off the fulcrum, one end of another 
fulcrum placed on a tie and the other end under the main 
frame back of the trailer and the engine moved, thus rais- 
ing the rear end of the frame so that the front end of the 
trailer spring can be chained up to the cross equalizer 
(Plate 117). The opposite side should then be elevated 
and chained in the same manner, and the blocking re- 
moved from the "U" hanger under the cross equalizer. 

BROKEN DRIVING AXLES. 

If a front driving wheel breaks off at the axle of 
an eight-wheel engine, all side rods and main rod 
should be removed, the broken wheel also removed, 
or chained to the frame, the valve-stem disconnected, 
the valve clamped centrally on its seat and the cross- 
head blocked back. A fulcrum should be used to 
raise the axle on the broken side, blocking placed 
solidly between the cellar and the pedestal jaw or binder 
and a block placed between the spring saddle and the 
frame, with overhung spring rigging, or if the equalizer 
is between the frame, blocking should be placed between 
the equalizer and the lower rail of the frame. With 
underhung spring rigging the end of the equalizer near- 
est the broken axle should be chained up. 

Wheels with Blind Tires. If the forward pair of 
wheels have blind tires, as on six or eight-wheel con- 
nected engines, the opposite wheel should also be 
raised and blocked so that it clears the rail. In this 
event the engine frame should be raised by means of a 
fulcrum and blocking placed on top of the main boxes, but 
if the engine settles too low it will also be necessary 
to block on top of the truck equalizers and under the 
truck frame. If it becomes necessary to disconnect the 
forward pair of springs on a Mogul engine, a truck brass 
should be placed between the long equalizer and the 
truck axle. If the engine should slip with the main rods 



238 LEAKS AND BLOWS. 

up, and could not handle itself, it would be necessary 
to obtain assistance to get the engine moved on to a block, 
so that a block could be placed on the main driving box, 
to throw more weight on the main driver, and so pre- 
vent the engine from slipping. The driver brake should 
be cut out in all cases. The fulcrum should then be re- 
moved and if the frame settles too much it should be 
elevated and blocking placed on the driving boxes near- 
est the main wheel on the broken side. If it is an eight- 
wheel engine and the pilot fails to clear the rail, the ful- 
crum should be placed under the pilot beam, the frame 
raised and blocking placed between the equalizer and 
the engine truck frame to keep the pilot a safe distance 
above the rails. 

Main Wheel. If the main wheel breaks off at 
the axle, the engine should be disconnected on the 
broken side, the valve clamped centrally on its seat, 
the crosshead blocked, and all side rods and the 
broken wheel removed. The eccentrics will prevent 
the other wheel from leaving the rail, even if it has 
a blind tire. A fulcrum should be used to raise the 
axle on the broken side and blocking placed between 
the pedestal jaws and the cellar. If the engine has 
an overhung spring rigging, blocking should be placed 
between the spring saddle and the frame. If the 
equalizer is between the rails of the frame, blocking 
should be placed between the equalizers and the lower 
rail Of the frame, but with underhung spring rigging 
it would be necessary to chain up the equalizers on both 
sides of the main driver. If the back wheel is broken 
it should be blocked in the same manner as for a broken 
back tire. 

LEAKS AND BLOWS. 

If an engine blows badly and is unable to start the 
train when on the right-hand center, the blow will gen- 



LEAKS AND BLOWS. 239 

erally be on the left side, as the opposite engine is the 
only power the engine has to move the second engine 
off the center. 

Blows on an engine may be caused by cut valve-seats 
or pistons, broken balance strips, stuck-down or broken 
springs under the strips, balance plates which have too 
great a clearance above the valve, broken or worn pack- 
ing rings in piston valves, broken or worn cylinder pack- 
ing rings, or two or more rings which have turned so that 
their openings come opposite to one another at the top 
of the piston, broken valve-seats or valves, a blow from 
under a false valve_seat, or a broken or stuck-open by- 
pass valve. 

A valve blow is a continuous blow, and has a wheez- 
ing sound. A valve strip blow is also continuous and 
sounds like a blower that is partly open. The cylinder 
packing blow is the strongest at the beginning of the 
stroke and diminishes as the piston travels toward the 
end of its stroke. 

Locating Valve Blows. To ascertain on which side 
a blow occurs, place the engine on the quarter, plumb 
the rocker arm, open the cylinder cock, then open the 
throttle slightly and admit steam to the steam-chest. 
If steam shows at the cylinder cock and there is a 
blow at the stack it would indicate a blow on that side. 
If no steam appears at the cylinder cock, the opposite 
side should be tested in the same manner. 

In testing for a broken valve strip, place the engine 
in the same position, plumb the rocker arm, give the en- 
gine steam and open the channel drain cocks in the ex- 
haust cavity. If the steam shows it will indicate that the 
strip is blowing on that side. If the engine has no chan- 
nel cock, the reverse lever should be moved from the for- 
ward to the back motion, and the engine placed on the 
quarter on the opposite side, after which the reverse lever 



2 4 o LEAKS AND BLOWS. 

should be moved from the forward to the back. motion in 
the same manner. The side on which the reverse lever 
moves the hardest will be the one on which the strip is 
blowing. 

Locating Defective Cylinder Packing. To locate 
the side on which the cylinder packing is blowing, 
the engine should be placed on the quarter on the 
right side, with the reverse lever in the full forward 
or backward gear. The cylinder cock should then be 
opened on the opposite end to the one at which steam 
is being admitted. If steam shows at that cylinder cock 
and at the stack, it will indicate a broken or badly worn 
cylinder packing on that side. If the blow is not located 
on the right side, it should be tested for in the same 
manner on the left side. 

Defective Rings — Piston Valves. A broken admis- 
sion ring on the piston valve admits steam too early, 
and cuts it off too late, producing a loud exhaust fol- 
lowed by a blow. 

When an exhaust ring on a piston valve is broken 
there will be a blow at the stack when steam is first ad- 
mitted to the cylinder, which will continue until the ad- 
mission ring covers the port. When the valve returns 
there will be another blow and also a light and early ex- 
haust. 

To distinguish between a broken by-pass valve and a 
broken admission ring, the valve should be placed cen- 
trally upon its seat, the cylinder cocks opened and steam 
admitted to the valve. If steam appears at the cylinder 
cock it will indicate that the by-pass valve or admission 
ring is broken. The main valve should be moved to 
cut off the admission of steam to the cylinder. If the 
steam is not cut off until the exhaust ring of the valve 
covers the admission bridge, it is an indication that the 
admission ring is broken, but if steam still appears at the 



ECCENTRICS. 241 

cylinder cock and there is a heavy blow at the stack, it 
is the by-pass valve which is broken. 

This test applies to inside admission piston valves. The 
valve should be moved in the opposite direction when test- 
ing outside admission piston valves. 

ECCENTRICS. 

Throw of the Eccentric. To find the throw of an 
eccentric, the greatest distance from the axle or bore 
at E (Plate 75) to the outside face of the eccentric at 
D should be measured. Next, the least distance from 
the axle at F to the outside face at G should be meas- 
ured. By the outside face is meant the bearing on 
which the eccentric strap fits. The difference between 
the two distances will be the throw of the eccentric. 
It can also be determined by the difference in distance 
between the center of the axle and the center of the 
eccentric, which represents one-half of the throw. 

Distinguishing Between Go-Ahead and Back-Up 
Eccentrics. In distinguishing between the go-ahead 
and the back-up eccentric, it should be remembered 
that the go-ahead eccentric strap 11 and blade 12 
(Plate 49) are always connected at the top with a 
link 9 and the back-up blade 12 is connected to the 
bottom of the link. 

Positions of Eccentric on the Journal. The posi- 
tion of an eccentric on the axle relative to the crank 
pin varies with inside and outside admission valves. 
With inside admission, direct motion, the eccentrics 
are placed 90 degrees minus lap and lead, in an angle 
towards the pin (Fig. 2, Plate 74), while with an out- 
side admission the eccentrics are placed 90 degrees 
plus the lap and lead, in an angle from the pin (Fig. 1, 
Plate 74). 

With an outside admission, indirect valve motion, 
the eccentrics are placed 90 degrees minus lap and 



242 ECCENTRICS. 

lead, in an angle toward the pin (Fig. 2, Plate 74), and 
with an indirect motion, inside admission, the eccen- 
trics are placed 90 degrees plus the lap and lead, in an 
angle from the pin (Fig. 1, Plate 74). 

Slipping of Eccentrics. If an eccentric has slipped 
on the axle it can be detected by the relative position 
of the eccentric on the shaft to the pin, or by placing 
the reverse lever in the full forward motion, opening 
the cylinder cocks, moving the engine along slowly, 
watching the crosshead and noting when the steam ap- 
pears at the cylinder cock, whether it is early or late 
in the stroke. If the steam appears at the proper time 
it will show that the go-ahead eccentric has not 
slipped. 

To test for the back-up eccentric the reverse lever 
should be placed in the full backward motion, and the 
test proceeded with in the same manner as with the 
go-ahead eccentric. 

A slipped eccentric can also be detected by the key- 
way on the shaft. With an inside direct or an outside 
indirect motion engine in the forward motion, the go- 
ahead eccentric will slip away from the pin and the 
back-up eccentric will slip toward the pin, while with 
an outside admission, direct, and an inside admission, 
indirect motion, with the engine in the forward mo- 
tion, the go-ahead eccentric will slip toward, and the 
back-up eccentric away from the pin. 

An eccentric which has slipped in this manner 
causes a late admission of steam to the cylinder, if it 
be a go-ahead eccentric. A slipped back-up eccentric 
will cause a too early admission of steam to the cylin- 
der with either motion. 

When the engine is backing up the eccentric will 
slip in the direction opposite to that when the engine is 
moving ahead. 



ECCENTRIC BLADES. 243 

If an eccentric which is held in place by keys slips 
turn the eccentric on the shaft until the grooves in the 
eccentric and the shaft register, and then replace the key 
and tighten set-screw B (Plate 75). 

If the eccentric is not keyed, place the engine on 
either center on the side on which the eccentric has 
slipped, put the reverse lever in full forward gear for the 
go-ahead eccentric and in full back gear for the back-up 
eccentric, set the brake and block the wheels securely, and 
then have the fireman open the throttle slightly and open 
the cylinder cocks. The slipped eccentric should then be 
moved either toward or away from the pin, according to 
the motion of the engine, until steam appears at the cyl- 
inder cock at the end of the cylinder in which the piston 
lies. The eccentric should then be secured. 

When setting an eccentric the engineman should 
place the engine on that center which will enable him 
most easily to get at the set-screws and eccentric. 

The usual causes of eccentrics or blades slipping 
are loose set-screws, hot ' eccentrics, tightening up set- 
screws when the bolts holding the parts of the eccen- 
tric together are loose, or too much strain on the ec- 
centric when moving the valve gear. 

Causes of Engine Going "Lame." When an engine 
suddenly goes "lame" (a term commonly used when 
the exhausts are uneven), it may be due to a slipped 
eccentric or blade, loose strap bolts, sprung blade, 
sprung tumbling shaft, loose rocker box, sprung stem 
or cracked valve yoke, or to any part of the valve or 
its seat being broken. 

ECCENTRIC BLADES. 

Eccentric blades are made adjustable in order to 
permit adjustment of the valve travel, so that an even 
admission of steam can be had at both steam ports. 



244 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING. 

If one of the blades is too long or too short, it will 
cause too early an admission of steam and a late cut-off 
and exhaust in one end of the cylinder, and in the oppo- 
site end a late admission and too early a cut-off and 
exhaust. 

If an eccentric blade slips the engine should be placed 
on the center on the side on which the blade has slipped, 
and, if it is the go-ahead blade which has slipped, the re- 
verse lever should be placed in the full forward gear. If 
it is the back-up blade which has slipped, the reverse 
lever should be placed in the full backward gear, the 
brake set, the wheels blocked, the cylinder cocks 
opened, and the blade moved until steam just appears at 
the cylinder cock at the end of the cylinder in which the 
piston rests. The blade should then be secured to the 
strap by tightening of the bolts. 

LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING. 

REVERSING THE MOTION OF THE ENGINE. 

Moving the reverse lever from one end of the 
quadrant to the other reverses the motion of the en- 
gine. When the reverse lever is in the forward gear, 
the link is below the center line of motion, and the 
go-ahead eccentric controls the engine (Plate 49), 
while with the lever in the back gear the link is raised 
above the center line of motion and the back-up ec- 
centrics are in control. 

BLOCKING THE CROSSHEAD. 

When it is necessary to block a crosshead it should 
be blocked at the rear end of the guide if possible, 
guarding against getting the cylinder packing rings 
into the counterbore (Plate 66). With engines hav- 
ing forward drivers opposite the guides, the crosshead 
must be blocked full ahead or in the center of the guide 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING. 245 

in order to prevent the forward crank pin from strik- 
ing the wrist pin or crosshead. 

CYLINDER PACKING. 

Cylinder packing is fitted into grooves provided 
for that purpose in bull ring B (Plate 77). Its pur- 
pose is to form a steam-tight joint between the wall 
of the cylinder and the piston. The bull ring is held 
in place by the spider and follower, which in turn is 
held in its place by studs screwed into the face of the 
spider. 

PISTON AND VALVE-STEM PACKING. 

Metallic packing rings on a valve-stem or a piston rod 
are usually held in place by a spiral spring pressing 
against a ring and forcing the packing into a bell-shaped 
cone. Suitable provision is made for the uneven move- 
ment of the rod, as the cone holding the packing has a 
ground and steam-tight joint which permits it to have a 
lateral motion against the face of the packing gland. The 
packing gland is bolted to the steam-chest and the piston 
rod gland is bolted to the stufhng-box on the back head, 
holding the spring, packing and rings in their positions. 
The gland also forms a steam-tight joint between the 
gland and stuffing-box (Plates 43 and 45). 

MAIN THROTTLE PACKING. 

If the packing blows out of the main throttle stuff- 
ing-box, and the stuffing-box is high, so that the water 
can be kept below it, tighten up on the gland securely 
and proceed. But if the stuffing-box is low, it would 
not be safe to run the engine with water below it. In 
that case proceed to the nearest siding, fill the boiler 
with water, so reducing the steam pressure, and repack 
the stuffing-box with candle wicking, bell cord or any 



246 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING. 

other material which will serve to stop the flow of 
steam and water. 



LEAKY THROTTLE VALVE OR DRY PIPE. 

If the throttle is closed and steam escapes from the 
cylinder cocks it may be due to a leaky dry pipe, a 
leaky throttle valve, or the steam may come from the 
lubricator. 

To distinguish between a leaky throttle valve and a 
leaky dry pipe, the lubricator should be shut off and the 
boiler filled sufficiently to submerge the dry pipe. If dry 
steam appears at the cylinder cocks with the throttle shut, 
it indicates a leaky throttle valve. If both steam and 
water appear at the cylinder cocks it indicates a leaky 
dry pipe. 

LEAKY STEAM PIPES. 

Leaky steam pipes interfere with the draft of the 
fire and cause the engine to steam poorly. To test for 
leaky steam pipes, the reverse lever should be placed 
on the center, the brake set and the throttle opened, 
giving the engine a full head of steam. Then open the 
front end door and apply a lighted torch to the steam 
joints in the front end. The proper test for leaky 
steam pipes is the hydraulic test made at the shops. 

LEAKY EXHAUST OR NOZZLE JOINTS. 

Leaky exhaust pipe joints or leaky nozzle joints can 
be tested for by placing the lever forward or back, 
moving the engine slowly with the brake set so that 
a full head of steam can be used, opening the front end 
door and watching the joints. Cinders never accumu- 
late around such leaks, but are always driven away. 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING. 247 

DISABLED ENGINE. 

When an engine becomes disabled on the road, 
the train should first be protected in both front and 
rear, if necessary, by a flagman. Such temporary 
repairs should then be made as are necessary to enable 
the train to reach the next siding without blocking 
main line. After reaching the siding all necessary 
repairs that the material and tools on hand will permit 
should be made. If the breakdown is of such a nature 
that it is impossible to make even temporary repairs and 
clear the main track, a message giving full particulars 
and asking for assistance should be sent to the nearest 
open telegraph office and the engine be prepared to be 
towed in. 



WASHOUT PLUG BLOWING OUT, OR BLOW-OFF 
COCK FAILING TO CLOSE. 

If a washout plug blows out or a blow-off cock 
will not close, the boiler should be protected by draw- 
ing or deadening the fire. If the trouble occurs in 
freezing weather all parts containing water should be 
drained. These parts would include the delivery pipe, 
branch pipe, steam-heat and dynamo lines, the blower and 
the pipes leading to the pump, steam-gauge and lubri- 
cator. The tank hose also should be uncoupled between 
the tank and engine. If any water remains in the leg of 
the boiler it should be drained. Care should be taken 
when draining the tank not to wash away gravel from 
the road bed, or flood the switches so that they would 
freeze up. If the trouble occurs in warm weather, the 
blow-off cock should be taken apart and repaired, if pos- 
sible to do so, and then replaced. If the washout plug 
blows out, plug it with a suitable plug and prepare to re- 
fill the boiler. 



248 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING. 

REFILLING THE BOILER. 

The boiler can be refilled while being towed in the 
following manner : All outward openings to the boiler, 
such as the steam-heat line, dynamo line, blower and 
air-pump should be closed, the lubricator and steam- 
gauge cock shut off, the heater valve screwed down, 
the main throttle on the injector opened, the reverse 
lever placed in the direction in which the engine is 
being towed, and the main throttle opened, the tank 
valve open, and a good supply of air admitted to the 
tank. All openings outside the cab, such as the cylinder 
cocks, relief valves, blow-off cocks, and whistle valve, 
must be closed (and by-pass valves, if on a piston- valved 
engine), and the engine must be towed sufficiently fast 
for the movement of the pistons in the cylinders to create 
a vacuum in the boiler and thus draw the water from the 
tank to the boiler. 

LEAKING OR BURSTED FLUES. 

If a flue leaks badly it should be plugged in the 
fire-box, and if a flue bursts it should be plugged in 
the fire-box and front end. In most cases an engine 
with a bursted flue must be towed in. 

WHISTLE OR SAFETY-VALVE BLOWING OUT. 

If a whistle or safety-valve blows out, both injectors 
should be put to work at once, in order to secure a full 
supply of water, so that when the pressure is reduced 
and the injectors stop working, there will be sufficient 
water in the boiler to permit the. necessary repairs to 
be made and the fire rebuilt. A tightly fitting plug 
should then be whittled from a long piece of dry pine 
wood and driven down in place of the whistle or safety- 
valve. About fourteen inches of this plug should ex- 
tend into the dome. A piece of board or plank should 
then be used as a lever and tied to the hand railing to 
hold the plug in place. A dry pine plug should always 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING. 249 

be used, as steam will cause the plug to swell and 
assist in holding it in place. 

ENGINE THROWING FIRE. 

When an engine throws fire out of the stack it may 
be caused by a burned out netting, a hole in the net- 
ting, a loose manhole, or fine slack coal. To prevent 
this, avoid slipping and work the engine as lightly as 
possible. If the engine is setting fires along the right 
of way, proceed to the next siding, open the front end 
door and remedy the defect if possible. If the trouble 
cannot be overcome with the means at hand, the su- 
perintendent should be notified, and the engineman 
will be governed by his instructions. 

DERAILED ENGINE. 

An engine which has been off the track and has 
been rerailed should be carefully inspected to see that 
there are no broken driving box cellars, bent or sprung 
rods or crank pins, broken brake rigging, loose tires, 
loose wheels, broken drawbar castings or drawbars, 
sprung axles or journals. 

RAISING WHEELS. 

When it is necessary to raise a wheel and jacks are 
not available, or the engine is too heavy to be raised 
with ordinary jacks, it can be done by running the 
wheel up on frogs or wedges, or by elevating the 
frame by means of a fulcrum and levers. 

DRIVING BOX HANGERS UNHOOKED. 

If an engine has been off the track and the driving 
box hangers have become unhooked from the driving 
box, which frequently occurs with underhung spring 
rigging, they can be replaced in position by taking a 
tie or a frog and building up under one end of it, so 
that it will rest in an inclined position under the spring 
socket, moving the engine and skidding the spring 



250 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING. 

socket up sufficiently for the hangers to be replaced. 
All four hangers should then be tied securely with a 
piece of bell cord in order to keep them in place while 
sliding the spring socket off the frog or tie. 

REVERSING THE ENGINE AT HIGH SPEED. 

If the engine is reversed at high speed, the throttle 
should be opened, allowing the compression to pass 
into the boiler and be relieved at the safety-valve. 

EXTENSION PISTON RODS. 

When piston rods are extended through the front 
cylinder head, the purpose is to better support the pis- 
ton, and to produce a uniform wear on the cylinder. 
This type of piston is especially desirable with large 
cylinders. 

TAKING DOWN MAIN RQD. 
When a main rod is taken down, and there is no collar 
between the main and the side rod, the side rod can be 
held in place on the pin by a wooden or metal collar 
clamped on the outer end of the pin. If there is no 
collar on hand, small pieces of wood can be sawed to 
fit lengthwise and tied securely around the pin with 
bell cord or wire. The two sections of the main rod 
brass can be used and fastened in place in the same 
manner. 

REMOVING ENGINE AND TENDER TRUCK BRASSES. 

An engine truck brass can be removed and replaced 
by a new one while on the road, by removing the oil 
pipe (if so equipped) and cellar, placing one end of a 
fulcrum of proper length on a tie and the other end 
under the corner of the engine truck box, or a nut or 
suitable blocking between the binder brace and the 
truck box, then placing a fulcrum on the corner of the 
truck frame, and -moving the engine ahead or back. 
This will raise the truck box so that the old brass can 



LOCOMOTIVE. ENGINEERING. 251 

be taken out and replaced with a new one. The engine 
should then be run off the fulcrum, the oil pipe and 
cellar replaced. 

If a tender truck brass needs replacing with a new one 
while on the road, the packing should be taken out, one 
end of a fulcrum of suitable length placed on a tie and the 
other end placed under the tender truck box. Another 
fulcrum two inches shorter than the first should be placed 
on the opposite side under the tender truck box on the 
same pair of wheels, for the purpose of keeping the wheel 
on which the box is being raised down to the rail. The 
engine should then be moved enough to raise the box, the 
old brass taken out and replaced with a new one, the 
box lowered by again moving the engine, and the box 
repacked. 

An outside trailer brass can be replaced in the same 
manner. 

With an inside trailer bearing it would be necessary 
to proceed in the same manner as for removing and re- 
placing engine truck brasses. 

CYLINDERS LOOSE IN THE FRAME. 

Cylinders are fastened to the frame by means of 
cylinder bolts and keys. If a key works loose, it should 
be driven in securely. If a key is lost, it should be re- 
placed with a piece of iron, such as a rod key or a rail- 
road spike. If it is impossible to replace the key, the 
valve should be disconnected and clamped centrally 
on its seat, and the engine should proceed on one side,- 
ih order to prevent further damage. 

DRIVING BOXES AND SPRINGS. 

The driving boxes are not secured rigidly to the 
frame, but can move up and down, thus permitting 



252 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING. 

the wheels to conform to the inequalities of the 
track. They are rigidly held against any forward 
and backward motion by the shoes and wedges bear- 
ing against the frame. The driving boxes support 
the springs, the ends of which are fastened to the 
frame directly or through equalizers which will always 
maintain the same weight on each driving box, even when 
one wheel strikes a high or a low spot in the track. They 
cause an engine to ride more easily, and the springs, 
spring hangers and equalizers are for the purpose of 
holding the frame a certain height from the fop of the 
driving box. If any one of the springs, hangers or equal- 
izers is broken, it will allow the frame to drop on the 
driving box, and if the frame were not blocked up, it 

would cause the driving boxes to heat, or possibly to 
break, and would also cause a hard riding engine. 

ELEVATING WHEELS AND FRAMES. 

A driving wheel is run on wedges for the purpose of 
elevating the frame ahead or back of the wheel which 
is on the wedge, permitting the placing of a block be- 
tween the top of the driving box and the frame, in 
order to elevate the frame further. This enables the 
driver, the driving box of which has been so blocked, 
to carry its proportion of the weight, and the frame 
on that side is held at the proper level with the frame 
on the opposite side. 

The blocking used on top of driving boxes with heavy 
power must be of iron. Care should be taken when run- 
ning a wheel on wedges that good material is used. If 
a wheel is raised with the frame and it slips off the 
wedge, it is liable to break either the frame or driving 
boxes and possibly derail the wheels. Driving boxes that 
are blocked must be well oiled and run slow to prevent 
heating. 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING. 253 

INSPECTION. 

An engineman should always inspect his engine 
thoroughly for possible defects before attaching it to a 
train. He should know the condition of the fire-box, 
grates and ash pan; that the gauge and water-glass 
cocks are open and working freely; that there is a 
sufficient supply of water in the boiler; examine the 
condition of the engineer's brake-valve and air-pump and 
test the brakes to see that they apply and release prop- 
erly, noting that they have the proper piston travel. Also 
note that the steam-heat reducing valve regulates the 
pressure properly ; see that there is a sufficient supply of 
oil and grease ; that the sand-box is filled ; that the sander 
is working properly, and take such other precautions 
as may be necessary to prevent an engine failure. 

Before starting on a trip an engine should be provided 
with the necessary tools for making repairs in case of a 
breakdown. The list of tools should include a pinch- 
bar, pair of jacks, four oak wedges, the necessary 
blocking for crosshead, ax and saw, an extra rod key 
(when the engine is not equipped with solid rods), valve- 
stem clamp and the necessary firing tools. All flagging 
and signal supplies are classed as tools. 

When repairs have been made or work done on valves, 
brasses, etc., the engineman should make a thorough 
inspection of them before starting on the trip to see that 
the work has been properly done, and that all movable 
parts have been returned to their places and properly 
connected' up. 

GUIDES AND CROSSHEADS. 

When the guides and crossheads are not in line 
there is danger of heating and cutting the guides, 
breaking off the guide lugs on back cylinder heads, 
wearing out the walls of the cylinder and heating the 
main rod brasses. 



254 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING.. 

Crossheads and guides should be reported closed 
when there is sufficient lost motion between the cross- 
head and guides to cause a pound when the pin is leav- 
ing either center and the crosshead is beginning the re- 
turn stroke. 

LOST MOTION BETWEEN ENGINE AND TENDER. 

Lost motion between the engine and tender should 
be taken up when it is sufficient to cause a strain on 
the drawbar by the backward and forward lurch of the 
engine while in motion, or a forward lurch in starting. 

STARTING THE ENGINE. 

An engine should always . be started with the re- 
verse lever in full gear in either direction. A gradual 
admission of steam to the cylinders should be made, 
the cylinder cocks should be open if permissible, slow- 
ly starting one car after another until the entire train 
has been started. 

WORKING STEAM EXPANSIVELY. 

After a locomotive has, the train under headway it 
can be run more economically by working the steam 
expansively, when conditions will permit, by hooking 
up the reverse lever one notch at a time to a point 
where the engine will handle the train and make the 
required time with a full or a nearly full throttle. On 
some types of high pressure engines, however, the best 
results are produced by working the engine at a longer 
stroke and less throttle. 

Working steam expansively is the process by which 
steam is admitted into the cylinder, and the admission 
port closed by the valve cutting off the boiler pressure 
from the cylinder before the piston has traveled its full 
stroke, which allows the expansive force of the steam to 
exert its energy upon the piston from the time the cut- 
off takes place up to the point of its release through the 
exhaust port. 



LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING. 255 

POUNDS AND THEIR CAUSES. 

The pounding of an engine while working steam 
is caused by wedges which are improperly adjusted, 
lost motion between the crosshead and guides, hot 
driving boxes, broken driving boxes, loose brasses 
in driving boxes, improper keying of the rod brasses, 
flat spots in a tire, a piston rod which has become 
loose in the crosshead, or a piston becoming loose 
on the piston rod. When steam is shut off the pound may 
be caused by flat spots in a tire, follower bolts becoming 
loose, the follower bolt head dropping into the cylinder, 
or main rods being too long or too short. 

A pound in driving boxes, wedges or rod brasses can 
be located by placing the right main pin on the top quar- 
ter, giving the cylinder a little steam and reversing the 
lever under pressure. If the pound is not located on the 
right side, the test should be- repeated in the same man- 
ner on the left side. 

REPORTING WORK ON WHEELS AND TRUCKS. 

When reporting work to be done on any wheel 
or truck of the engine or tank, the part must be desig- 
nated by number. Beginning with the first wheel be- 
hind the pilot, which is No. 1, and following to the 
rear wheel of the tank, omitting the drivers, they 
should be designated in their numerical order, and the 
letters "R" (right) and "L" (left) used to indicate the 
side of the engine on which they are located. 

On a four-wheel connected engine the drivers should 
be designated as "right front" and "right back" or "left 
front" and "left back." The drivers on a six-wheel en- 
gine would be "right front," "right middle" and "right 
back." On the left side the drivers should be named in 
the same manner except that the word "left" would be 
substituted for "right." On a consolidated engine they 



256 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING. 

would be "Right Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4 — " and "Left Nos. 
i, 2, 3 and 4 drivers," No. 1 being the forward driver. 

WHEEL BASE. 

The rigid wheel base of an engine is the distance 
between the centers of the front and back pairs of 
driving wheels. The total wheel base of an engine 
is the distance from the center of the forward engine 
truck wheel to that of the back wheel of the engine. 

DEFECTIVE WHEELS. 

Flat or shelled-out parts in a wheel, or sharp flanges 
would constitute a bad wheel, the condemning of the 
wheel to be governed by an M. C. B. (Master Car 
Builders') standard gauge. 

USE OF THE SANDER. 

When using the sander the sand from both feed 
pipes should strike the rail in order to prevent an 
unequal strain on the engine and uneven wear of the tires. 

ABUSE OF AN ENGINE. 

The abuse of an engine consists of unnecessary 
slipping of the drivers, improper care, working steam 
at a longer point of cut-off than is necessary, over- 
pumping the water supply in the boiler, poor firing, 
the clogging of one sand pipe, or sand from one pipe 
only striking the rail and failure to report the neces- 
sary work which should be clone to keep the engine in 
good repair. 

MOVING ENGINE OFF THE CENTER. 

When an engine is disabled on one side, and the 
main rod and piston are left up, and the working en- 
gine stops on the center, it can be started by moving 
the valve on the disabled side by hand sufficiently to 
admit enough steam to move the engine off the center, 
after which the valve should be placed in its former 
position and clamped. 



257 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 

A great diversity of opinion exists regarding the mer- 
its of compound locomotives, although they have been in 
use for many years. While they have given excellent re- 
sults in some cases on many roads where they have been 
given a trial, the additional expense for repairs has large- 
ly offset their economy of fuel, and their use has' been dis- 
continued. While the compound locomotive has many 
disadvantages under the present mode of construction, it 
embodies the correct principle of economy and will, no 
doubt, when improved become the established type of 
American locomotive. There are several different types 
of compounds in use, the cross compound, the tandem and 
the Vauclain being the principal forms used. On one 
side the cross or two-cylinder compound has a high pres- 
sure, and on the opposite side a low pressure cylinder. 
The cylinders in this system of compounding are made 
of different diameters in order to equalize the power on 
each side of the engine. The tandem compound is a 
four-cylinder engine with a high and low pressure cylin- 
der on each side. The Vauclain compound is also a four- 
cylinder engine with two cylinders, one high and one 
low pressure, on each side of the engine. 

The same valve gear is used upon compound locomo- 
tives as upon the simple engines. The compound type 
cannot handle a heavier tonnage than can be handled at 
a given speed with a simple engine of similar weight and 
class. No locomotive can haul more than its tractive 
power will allow, but the compound will, at low speed on 
heavy grades, keep a train in motion where a single ex- 
pansion locomotive will stall. This is due to the fact 
that pressure on the crank pins of the compound is more 
uniform throughout the stroke than is the case with a 
single expansion engine. 



258 COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 

One of the advantages of the compound locomotive is, 
that owing to the more economical use of steam, less de- 
mand is made upon the boiler. Sufficient steam pressure 
is maintained with a mild exhaust, due to the low pressure 
of the steam when exhausted from the cylinders. The 
exhaust does not carry unconsumed fuel through the 
flues into the smoke-box and thence out of the smoke- 
stack, but is sufficiently strong to maintain the necessary 
draft for combustion. 

The use of the compound principle enables the loco- 
motive to develop its full efficiency under conditions 
which, with a simple engine, would require a boiler so 
large as to be out of the question under the conditions 
governing locomotive construction. 

The heating surfaces of a boiler absorb heat units from 
the fire and deliver them to the water at a certain rate. 
If the rate at which the products of combustion are car- 
ried away exceeds the rate of absorption, there will be a 
continual waste that can only be overcome by reducing 
the velocity with which the products of combustion are 
carried away. In the compound locomotive this is ef- 
fected by the milder exhaust. The milder exhaust is the 
result of a lower back pressure, which permits a greater 
effective power on the piston. 

The economical use of steam results in the saving of 
water and fuel. In bad water districts it reduces the 
frequency of boiler washing and results in greater life 
and diminished repairs to boiler and flues. 

Compounds as a rule do not drift as easily as a high 
pressure engine, because of their additional reciprocating 
parts. When steam is shut off in running down grade 
the piston acts as an air compressor, causing thumping, 
rough riding and cooling of the cylinder, as well as a 
strong draft in the stack at a time when no steam and 
little draft are required, thus causing a waste of fuel. 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 259 

The economy of compounds is considerably reduced at 
such times. 

A compound engine differs from a simple engine in 
that it works steam double expansion, first in the high 
pressure and then in the low pressure cylinder. 

The high pressure cylinder is so called for the reason 
that it takes its steam direct from the boiler at nearly 
boiler pressure, while the low pressure cylinder, under 
ordinary conditions, receives the steam from the high 
pressure cylinder at a greatly reduced pressure. 

The advantages of the compound over the single ex- 
pansion engine are that there is a lighter consumption of 
fuel and water, it does not require as high a steam pres- 
sure, a greater expansion of steam is obtained, and it can 
be operated so that its power can be increased. 

SCHENECTADY TWO -CYLINDER TYPE 
COMPOUND. 

This type of compound can be operated as a simple 
engine by turning the handle of the three-way cock 
in the cab, which is moved by hand to admit air 
or steam into the pipe, which connects with one 
end of separate exhaust valve chamber A (Plate 118), 
forcing the separate exhaust valve from right to left 
against the tension of the spring S. When the throttle 
is open steam is admitted to passage E leading to the in- 
tercepting valve, forcing the valve from left to right and 
permitting the steam to pass through the valve and ports 
G, from which it passes through the reducing valve to the 
low pressure steam-chest. Steam is also admitted di- 
rectly from the steam-pipe to the high pressure cylinder. 
The steam in the high pressure cylinder exhausts through 
the receiver and separate exhaust passage, while the 
steam in the low pressure cylinder exhausts in the same 



260 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 







COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 261 

manner as when working in compound position. Plates 
118 and 119 are self-explanatory, showing clearly the 
travel of the steam when working as a simple or as a 
compound engine. 

The purpose of the oil dashpot is to insure a steady 
movement of the valve without shock. The dashpot 
should be kept full of engine oil, which will assist the 
intercepting valve in maintaining a steady movement. 
If there is no oil in the dashpot it will allow , the inter- 
cepting valve to slam, this being the usual cause of the 
valve breaking. 

The two-cylinder compound is changed from simple 
to compound by returning the three-way cock to its 
normal position, which will permit the pressure to be 
withdrawn from the piston head of the separate exhaust 
valve. This allows the compressed spring to force the 
separate exhaust valve to its normal position, closing the 
communication between the high pressure cylinder and 
the exhaust (Plate 119). The pressure in the re- 
ceiver due to the exhaust from the high pressure cylinder 
will force the intercepting valve to the left, which opens 
a passage for the exhaust steam through the receiver to 
the low pressure steam-chest. A movement of the in- 
tercepting valve to the left prevents the passage of live 
steam from the boiler to the low pressure steam-chest. 

The intercepting and reducing valves of a two-cylin- 
der compound engine are automatically operated by the 
steam pressure exerted upon them, this being due to the 
difference in the areas of the ends of the valves. 

A compound engine should be operated as a simple 
engine only when starting a heavy train or to prevent 
the engine from stalling on a grade, and this should be 
done at a low speed, not to exceed four to six miles per 
hour. 

Lubrication. In lubricating a compound engine 



262 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 




COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 263 

two-thirds of the oil for cylinder lubrication should be fed 
to the high pressure cylinder while using steam. When 
drifting for a long distance this rule should be reversed, 
but the amount of oil used can be lessened by using a 
little steam. 

The necessity, for feeding more oil to the high than 
to the low pressure cylinder is due to the higher pressure 
of steam in the high pressure cylinder, which causes more 
friction than exists in the low pressure, and the oil that 
is fed to. the high pressure cylinder is carried along with 
the steam to the low pressure, in a vaporized form. 

Height of Water. Just enough water should be 
carried in the boiler of a compound engine to prevent 
overheating of the fire-box under all conditions of service, 
as wet steam is more injurious to a compound than a 
simple engine. 

Starting. A compound engine when handling a 
heavy train should always be started as a simple en- 
gine. 

Drifting. When drifting, the three-way cock in 
the cab should be in the same position as when working 
the engine simple, which will cause the separate exhaust 
valve to open (Plate 118). The cylinder and port cocks 
should also be open. 

Separate Exhaust Valve. A weak separate ex- 
haust valve spring (Plate 119) or the exhaust valve 
sticking, will cause two exhausts of air to blow from 
the three-way cock when the engine is being changed 
from simple to compound. 

Steam blowing at the three-way cock indicates a leaky 
separate exhaust valve-seat, which allows steam to pass 
by the exhaust valve packing ring. 

If the engine will not operate as a compound when 
pressure in the separate exhaust valve is released by the 
three-wav cock it indicates that the exhaust valve is stuck 



264 COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 

and communication with the valve has not been closed. 
A small quantity of coal oil admitted through the three- 
way cock in the cab, and forced to the separate exhaust 
valve, followed a short time afterward by a small quan- 
tity of cylinder oil, will generally release the valve. 

Intercepting and Reducing Valve. If the engine 
stands with the high pressure side on the center and 
will not move when given steam the trouble is due 
either to a stuck intercepting or reducing valve, which 
will prevent direct communication between the boiler 
and the low pressure cylinder. The position of the in- 
tercepting valve-stem will show which valve is stuck. 
A light blow on the end of the stem after the throttle has 
been opened will move it ahead. If the stem is out only 
a few inches it indicates that the reducing valve is stuck. 
A few sharp blows on the intercepting valve back head, 
with the throttle opened, will usually loosen it, and com- 
munication will again be established between the boiler 
and the low pressure cylinder. 

Breakdowns. In case of a breakdown the sep- 
arate exhaust valve should be opened as it is when work- 
ing simple (Plate 118). The blocking should be placed, 
the ports covered, and the engine disconnected, in the 
same manner as with a simple engine. 

To shut out the steam from the low pressure cylinder, 
place the valve centrally on its seat and the separate ex- 
haust valve and intercepting valve in a position that will 
allow the engine to work as a simple engine. 

Air Pressure Before Starting. It is very impor- 
tant that the air be pumped up on a Schenectady 
two-cylinder compound before the engine is started, if air 
is used to operate the separate exhaust valve, in order to 
insure a sufficient amount of air pressure to operate the 
valve, so that the compound can be operated as a simple 
engine. 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 265 

Locating Blows. The method of locating blows 
on a two-cylinder compound depends entirely upon the 
type of engine. In locating blows or leaks of valve or cyl- 
inder packing, the tests are similar to those made on a 
simple engine, and the engine should be worked as a sim- 
ple engine while locating them. To test for blows in the 
intercepting valve, the right-hand crank pin should be 
placed on the top or bottom quarter, the reverse lever 
placed in the center of the quadrant, the intercepting 
valve closed and the separate exhaust valve opened. 
Steam can then pass through the separate exhaust valve 
and will appear at the exhaust nozzle if the intercepting 
valve blows. 

BY-PASS AND OVERPASS VALVES. 

The by-pass valves are connected with the steam 
ports, and their purpose is to afford communication 
between the steam-chest and the steam ports in the 
cylinder. They are used to relieve the cylinder from 
excessive back pressure when drifting. 

The purpose of the overpass valves in the Richmond 
compound engine is to prevent a vacuum from being 
formed in the steam-chest, and the cylinders from heating. 
While the throttle is open passages a-a and chambers u-u 
are filled with steam and the overpass valves are held 
closed (Fig. 1, Plate 120). When the throttle is closed 
and the locomotive is allowed to drift, a vacuum forms in 
the steam-chest. This causes a vacuum to be formed in 
chambers u-u on each side of the overpass valves and the 
valves are forced apart. This opens passage BB from 
one end of the cylinder to the other, and the air that is 
being compressed ahead of the piston is free to flow into 
the other end of the cylinder (Fig. 2, Plate 120), thus 
preventing to a considerable extent the formation of a 
vacuum. The space between the valves is connected 



266 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 



with the atmosphere through the small vent P, as it has 
been found advisable to admit some external air in order 
to prevent the cylinders from becoming overheated 
through the heat generated in churning the air back and 
forth in the cylinder. The vent also aids in preventing 
the formation of a vacuum. The overpass valves are 
used only on the low pressure cylinders. 




FIG. 1— PLATE 120. 




FIG. 2— PLATE 120. 



BROOKS TANDEM TYPE. 

The four-cylinder Brooks compound type locomotives 
are called tandems for the reason that both pistons are 
operated by the same piston rod, and the high pressure 
cylinders are ahead of, and connected to, the low pressure 
cylinders. 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 



267 



In the tandem compound the steam does not exhaust 
from the right to the left cylinder, as is the case with the 
cross compound, but passes from the high pressure cylin- 
der to the low pressure steam-chest on the same side. 

The valves on the tandem compound are designed for 
both inside and outside admission. Plate 121 shows the 
inside admission for both valves. The steam ports are 




268 COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 

so arranged that both valves can be operated by one 
valve rod. On the high and low pressure cylinders, the 
valves are arranged for internal admission and the steam 
ports are opened and closed at the same time by the 
valve. On the low pressure cylinders the valves are also 
arranged for internal admission. The steam ports are 
the same as those used on the high pressure cylinder and 
the ordinary type of engine. 

When the engine is working compound, steam is ad- 
mitted to the high pressure steam-chest (Plate 121) 
through the connecting pipes, into the supply cavity sur- 
rounding the high pressure piston valve, and thence 
through the admission ports to the high pressure cylinder. 
When the valve in the high pressure cylinder is open for 
the admission of steam, the steam will pass down to the 
cylinder in the same manner as with an inside admission 
piston valve. The exhaust from the back head of the high 
pressure cylinder passes into the receiver, and that from 
the front end through the hollow piston valve, the steam 
being admitted to the low pressure cylinder by the in- 
ternal edge of the valve and exhausted therefrom through 
the extra exhaust passages on the end of the valve, to the 
stack . 

Operating Tandem as Simple Engine. A tandem 
compound can be operated as a simple engine only 
with the reverse lever in full gear. The low pressure 
steam-chest is provided with a reducing and starting 
valve, connecting with the high pressure steam-pipe. This 
valve is permitted to operate automatically when the re- 
verse lever is in full forward or backward gear. In the in- 
termediate position of the lever it is locked to its seat by a 
spring, so that it is rendered inoperative. Fig. 1, Plate 
122, shows the range of the lift shaft arm for the starting 
valve to be either opened or closed. The combinatiori 
starting and reducing valve permits the introduction of 
steam into the low pressure cylinder at an equivalent to 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 



269 



the maximum pressure obtained in this cylinder when 
the engine is working compound. Fig. 2, Plate 122, 
shows the starting valve open. As soon as the engine has 
made one complete revolution and the receiver is charged 
with the exhaust steam from the high pressure cylinder, 




270 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 




FIG. 2. 



PLATE 122. 



FIG. 3. 



the starting valve becomes inoperative, causing the engine 
to work compound. Fig. 3, Plate 122, shows the starting 
valve closed. 

The high pressure steam port and the passage sur- 
rounding the by-pass valve have communication with the 
starting valve. 

The starting valve, which causes the engine to work 
simple, and which can be operated by a lever in the cab, 
admits steam directly to the low pressure cylinder. Steam 
is first admitted to the high pressure steam-chest through 
the short steam-pipe connecting the saddle and the steam- 
chest, passing through the ports and around the by-pass 
valve, which registers with the high pressure steam ports. 
The by-pass valves are held against their seats by the 
pressure from below, which is in direct communication 
with the steam-chest. The starting valve having thus 
established communication with both high pressure steam 
ports, steam passes through both hollow piston valves and 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 271 

is admitted to the low pressure cylinder. The by-pass 
valves are also in the starting valve casting. 

Lubricators on Tandems. A tandem compound 
engine is usually equipped with two double sight-feed 
lubricators or one five-feed lubricator. When two lu- 
bricators are used each feed lubricates one of the four 
valves and the pistons, and with the five-feed lubricator 
one feed leads to each of the four cylinders, the other to 
the air-pump. The high pressure cylinders will require a 
greater supply of oil than the low pressure cylinders. 

Breakdowns on Tandems. In case of a break- 
down on the road, the Brooks tandem compound 
should be disconnected, the crosshead blocked and the 
steam ports covered, in the same manner as with a simple 
engine. 

Difference in Types. In a four-cylinder tandem 
one cylinder is placed behind the other, while in the 
Vauclain compound one cylinder is placed above the 
other. 

A tandem compound engine has four main steam 
valves, while a Vauclain compound has but two. 

The low pressure cylinders are made larger than the 
high pressure cylinders in order to equalize the pressures. 

Purpose of Working Single Expansion. To sim- 
ple a compound engine is to work it single expan- 
sion. The purpose of doing this is to increase the 
power by using live steam from the boiler direct to the 
low pressure cylinder. 

VAUCLAIN TYPE FOUR-CYLINDER. 

With the Vauclain type when working compound, 
steam. is admitted from the dry pipe into the steam- 
pipe and passes to the steam-chest, and then into 
the high pressure cylinders and is exhausted through 
the hollow of the valve to the low pressure cylinder and 
thence to the exhaust past the end of the valve (Plate 



2^2 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 



123). When working as a simple engine, steam is admit- 
ted directly from the steam-chest to the starting valve, and 
passes through the hollow of the valve to the low pressure 
cylinder (Plate 124), and thence to the exhaust. The 
high pressure pistons, having equal pressure on both 
sides, owing to the low pressure cylinder taking steam 




PLATE 123. 
direct from the high pressure steam-chest, prevent the 
high pressure cylinder from exhausting into the low pres- 
sure, and have no effect on the working of the engine. 

Engine Drifting. When drifting down grade the 
reverse lever should be in full gear and the starting 
valve open as when working simple (Plate 125, Fig. 1). 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 273 

Plate 125, Fig. 2, shows position for the starting valve 
when working compound. Plate 125, Fig. 3, shows this 
valve acting as a cylinder cock for both ends of the high 




FIG. 1— PLATE 125 



274 COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 

pressure cylinder. All • three positions of the starting 
valve as shown in Plate 125 are controlled by the same 
lever which operates the cylinder cocks. 

With engines not equipped with oil pipes leading to 
the low pressure cylinder, a little steam should be worked 
while drifting, to keep the cylinders lubricated. 




FIG. 3— PLATE 125. 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 275 

TESTING FOR BLOWS. 

When testing for valve blows in a Vauclain com- 
pound, the engine should be placed on the quarter, 
the reverse lever in the center, the cylinder cocks 
and starting valve opened and a little steam ad- 
mitted to the valve. If the two extreme end rings 

1 and 2 leak, steam will blow steadily from the 
starting valve. To determine which ring leaks or is 
broken, disconnect the coupling nut on the pipe which 
conveys steam to the starting valve, and the end of the 
pipe at which 1:he steam appears will indicate which one is 
broken. If testing for No. 3 and 4 valve rings, place the 
engine on the quarter, close the starting valve and open 
the cylinder cocks, and move the reverse lever from the 
center notch toward the end of the quadrant, either for- 
ward or back, depending upon which ring is being tested, 
which will move the valve, causing ring No. 1 or 2 to 
come over the admission port. This will admit steam 
to one end of the cylinder. If the valve is moved back 
and ring No. 3 is the one which is broken, steam will pass 
by the broken ring, down the front port to the low pres- 
sure cylinder and out of the front cylinder cock. If the 
valve is moved ahead to a position which places ring No. 

2 over the back admission port, when ring No. 4 is 
broken, steam will pass by ring No. 4, down the passage 
to the back head of the low pressure cylinder and out of 
the back cylinder cock. 

Should rings No. 5 or 6 be broken, it has very little 
effect when working compound, but allows steam en- 
trapped in the hollow of the valve to be admited to the 
low pressure cylinder too early. This will be indicated 
by the cylinder cocks. A broken ring No. 5 or 6 can 
better be detected by having the starting valve open and 
reverse lever down. Then open the cylinder cocks and 
a<imit steam, and move the engine slowly. Note the cross- 



276 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 



head as it nears the end of its stroke, and if steam is ad- 
mitted too early for that end of cylinder it indicates that 
ring No. 5 or 6 is broken. 

When either No. 7 or 8 valve ring is broken, it will 
cause a blow just before the exhaust takes place, and will 
also cause a light and early exhaust. This can be deter- 
mined by watching the crosshead and noting from which 
end of the cylinder the light exhaust comes. 

A broken admission ring No. 1 or 2 in the high pres- 
sure valve gives too early a port opening to the high 
pressure cylinder and cuts off the steam too late. This 
allows too much steam to be admitted to the high pressure 
cylinder and when the steam is exhausted to the atmos- 
phere it will be indicated by a heavy exhaust. Plate 126 
shows a sectional view of the valve placed centrally on 
its seat and the arrangement of the ports. 



f" id fl 




PLATE 126. 

When testing for a valve blow in a tandem compound, 
the engine should be placed on the quarter, the brake set, 
the ports covered, the cylinder cocks on the high pressure 
cylinder blocked open, and the engine given a full head 
of steam. If no steam appears at the cylinder cocks it 
indicates that the two admission rings are in good con- 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 277 

dition. If, however, the steam blows out of either or 
both cylinder cocks, it indicates that the rings are leaking 
or broken. To test the low pressure valves, the starting 
valve should be opened, the cylinder cocks on the low 
pressure cylinder opened and steam admitted. If there 
is a blow past the inside admission rings, it will show at 
the cylinder cocks. If the valve has exhaust clearance 
it will also blow to the stack. The cylinder cock from 
which the steam appears indicates the end of the valve on 
which the ring is broken. If the exhaust rings are broken 
on the low pressure piston valve, it will be indicated by a 
light and' early exhaust from the end of the cylinder in 
which the ring is broken. 

The method of testing for blows in the high and the 
low pressure cylinder packing is practically the same for 
both the Vauclain and the tandem. In testing for a blow 
in a high pressure cylinder packing of a tandem, the en- 
gine should be placed on the bottom quarter on the side to 
be tested, the reverse lever placed in the forward motion 
and the back cylinder cock of the high pressure cylinder 
blocked open. This will admit steam to the front head, 
and, if it then blows from the back cylinder cock, it indi- 
cates that the high pressure cylinder packing is blowing. 
In testing for the low pressure cylinder packing, the en- 
gine and reverse levers should be placed in the position 
required for testing for high pressure cylinder packing 
and the back cylinder cock of the low pressure cylinder 
blocked open. The starting valve should be opened and 
a little steam admitted. If steam then blows from the 
back cylinder cock, the blow is in- the low pressure cylin- 
der packing. 

When testing for cylinder packing on a Vauclain, 
place the engine on the quarter, the reverse lever in the 
full back or forward motion, open the cylinder cocks and 
admit steam to the high pressure cylinder. If the packing 



278 COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 

blows, steam will pass from the opposite end of the high 
pressure cylinder, the exhaust being open from that end 
of the cylinder, to the opposite end of the low pressure 
cylinder, and will pass out of the cylinder cock. This 
indicates that the high pressure cylinder packing is blow- 
ing. To test for low pressure cylinder packing, place the 
engine on the quarter, with the reverse lever in full 
stroke, open the starting valve and admit steam to the 
low pressure cylinder. If steam is admitted to the front 
head and the cylinder packing is blowing, it will be indi- 
cated at the back cylinder cock and stack. 

A blow in the sleeve between the high and low pres- 
sure cylinders of a tandem can be located by placing the 
engine on the top quarter on the side to be tested, placing 
the reverse lever in the forward motion and blocking open 
the front cylinder cock of the low pressure cylinder. A 
little steam should then be admitted to the back end of 
the high pressure cylinder. If the steam blows out of 
the front cylinder cock of the low pressure cylinder and 
also at the stack, it indicates that the sleeve is not steam- 
tight. 

SLIPPED ECCENTRIC. 

A slipped eccentric on either a tandem, Vauclain, or 
a cross compound engine should be set in the same man- 
ner as with a simple engine. 

DISCONNECTING. 

If it is necessary to disconnect on one side of either 
a tandem or a Vauclain compound engine, the rocker arm 
should be plumbed, the valve-stem disconnected and 
clamped with a valve clamp, or, if no clamp is at hand, 
a block of wood placed between the valve-stem and the 
frame to prevent the rocker arm from striking the stem, 
and secured in the same manner as with a simple engine. 

When disconnecting a Vauclain compound engine for 
a broken high or low pressure piston rod, the valve on 



COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. 279 

the broken side should be disconnected and clamped on 
the center of its seat and the main rod taken down. If 
the main rod is too heavy to take down, or the distance 
to be covered is short, the indicator plugs or the relief 
valve should be taken out, and the cylinder oiled, if the 
piston is not broken, and the engine run on one side. 

WORKING SIMPLE FOR LONG DISTANCES. 

A compound engine should not be worked simple for 
long distances, or when unnecessary, as it causes strain 
and wear of the valve gear, in addition to wasting fuel. 

SANDING RAILS. 

It is important that the rails be sanded when starting 
a compound in simple position, as on account of the ad- 
ditional power exerted on the piston the drivers are 
more likely to slip than when working compound. 

WORKING ENGINE WITH SHORT CUT-OFF. 

It is considered a disadvantage to work a compound 
engine with short cut-off on account of the greater 
compression. The power of both cylinders is better 
equalized with the lever at one-half stroke. 

LIGHT TRAINS. 

A compound engine working with a partial load 
should be operated with the reverse lever at the half 
stroke, and with a light throttle. If the engine develops 
more power than is required with the lever at about half 
stroke, the throttle should be partly closed. 

OPENING CYLINDER COCKS. 

It is more important to have the cylinder cocks open 
when starting a compound engine than when starting a 
simple engine, as there is more condensation in the cylin- 
der of a compound than of a simple engine. 



280 



WALSCHAERT'S VALVE GEAR. 

Plate 127 shows the Walschaert's valve gear and the 
manner in which it is connected to the engine. This 
device is not entirely perfect in its movement, as no mo- 
tion can be perfect that depends on a rotary being 
changed into a lineal motion by the use of connecting 
rods. However limited the path of the crank may be, a 
certain brief space is lost in the first half of the stroke 
to which its equivalent is added in the second half. In a 
reversing engine this variable motion will always be a 
factor of disturbance in all calculations, but in the Wal- 
schaert's valve gear it is rendered of as little effect as 
can be looked for in any mechanical movement. 

' The perfect adjustment of the eccentric crank at right 
angles to the main crank, to which it is attached, is the 
prime necessity in the construction of the gearing. A 
connecting rod attached to a crank so fixed, will convey 
a motion to the ordinary slide, or piston valve, which, if 
correct in point of length, will place the valve in the 
center of the valve-seat, when the piston is at the end 
of the stroke. With the lap and lead necessary for the 
economical use of steam, it is simply a question of how 
far the valve should be moved to reach the desired point. 
The moving of the valve to this point is the distinguishing 
feature of the Walschaert's valve gear. The valve rod is 
engaged by an intervening union bar, which is attached 
to the crosshead, and the corelation of the short distance 
between the union bar and the bar driven by the eccentric 
rod and radial link, and the lower end of the union bar, 
becomes the determining factor in moving the valve away 
from the central position to the point desired. 

The action of the intervening union bar is such that at 
the opening of the valve the motion is accelerated, and a 
rapid opening at the end of the stroke of the piston be- 
comes a peculiarity of the valve's motion, in addition to 



WALSCHIAERT'S VALVE GEAR. 281 




282 WALSCHAERT'S VALVE GEAR. 

which the opening becomes a fixed quantity, unchanged 
by the variations of valve travel. Adding to this the fact 
that the intervening radial link oscillates in a much small- 
er arc than is the case with the Stephenson valve gear, it 
can readily be seen that the regularity of the movement is 
at all times under perfect control, and the path of the arc 
can be defined with a degree of exactness that leaves little 
or nothing to be desired. 

Indirectly, other benefits followed the introduction of 
the Walschaert's valve gear. The absence of the link 
motion permits easier access to the driving boxes from the 
inside, and for the same reason it has been practicable to 
introduce strong bracing between the frames in order 
to lessen frame breakage, which has been one of the great- 
est sources of expense in locomotive maintenance. 

Adjusting the Valve Gear. In adjusting the 
Walschaert's valve gear, all that is necessary is to 
place the engine on either of the centers. The length 
of the eccentric rods should be so adjusted that, in 
moving the reverse lever from one end of the quad- 
rant to" the other, the valve will not move from its 
position while the radial bar moves from end to end of the 
link. Any movement of the valve shows that the eccen- 
tric rod is too long or too short, as the case may be. This 
should be tried on both centers, and if the valve remains 
motionless the eccentric rod is of correct length. It is 
well before making any changes in the length of the 
eccentric rod to see that the valve rod is of the proper 
length. This can readily be determined by marking the 
position of the valve at both centers, and lengthening or 
shortening the valve spindle to equalize variations, if 
there are any. The amount of lap or lead is then de- 
termined by the leverage in the combination attached to 
the crosshead. Because of the eccentric crank being set 
at right angles to the main crank, and the eccentric rod 



WALSCHAERT'S VALVE GEAR. 283 

and valve connections being of the proper length, the pis- 
ton valve unattached to the crosshead connection, would 
be in the center of the valve-seat with, perhaps, the little 
divergence from the exact center which would arise from 
the slightly angular advance of the eccentric rod. As- 
suming that the valve is on the center, the distance to 
be moved amounts to whatever the lap and lead may be, 
and the proportion of the combination lever with the 
short leverage connection with the crosshead can be de- 
termined by moving the valve to its proper position, and 
then with the valve spindle and radial bar coupled, the 
length of the lower connection from the crosshead to 
the combination lever can be determined. 

As the eccentric rod and connecting rod between the 
crosshead and combination or lead lever are made adjust- 
able by substantial turnbuckles or other movable devices, 
the setting of the valve gearing and the retaining of the 
valve in its proper position is a matter of easy accom- 
plishment. 

In adjusting the eccentric rod, changing the position 
of the bearings, suspending the link, as in the case of the 
eccentric rod being too short, by placing a liner between 
the guide yoke or bearing brace and link casting, will 
shorten the distance between the oscillating link and the 
eccentric crank. This has the effect of disturbing the 
true location of the radial bar, paving the way for organic 
defects, and should be avoided, if for no other reason 
than that liners never fail to lend themselves to the loos- 
ening of substantial bearings, and one of the features of 
the Walschaert's valve gearing is the opportunity that the 
parts afford for broad and massive bearings, which with 
the lessened number of working joints gives the apparatus 
a most desirable degree of stability. 

Breakdowns. When a reach rod or reversing arm 
shaft breaks, the links should be blocked at a point 



284 WALSCHAERT'S VALVE GEAR. 

of cut-off that will enable the engine to handle the train. 
A long block should be placed on the top of the link block 
in the slot of the link, and a short block placed under- 
neath the link block, allowing for the slipping of the link 
block. Some roads prefer that only one link should be 
blocked top and bottom, in which case it can be blocked 
solid. 

Should the lifting arm or radius rod hanger break, 
the link block should be blocked at a point of cut-off 
where the engine can handle the train. If it becomes 
necessary to reverse the engine, the blocking should be 
changed, the short block being put on top and the long 
block on the bottom. Care should be taken not to 
reverse the engine without shifting the blocking back .to 
its original position, which would be the long block on 
the top of the link block and the short block on the bot- 
tom. The blocking should be solid at both top and bot- 
tom of the link block, no allowance being made for the 
slipping of the link block in this case. 

If a radius rod is broken, the broken parts should be 
removed, the valve placed centrally upon its seat and the 
valve-stem guide clamped with the set-screws • provided 
for that purpose. 

In case a combination lever or crosshead rod breaks, 
the broken parts should be removed, the radius rod taken 
down and the valve clamped centrally upon its seat. 

If an eccentric rod is broken, the broken parts of the 
rod should be removed, the combination lever and con- 
nection rod disconnected and the valve clamped centrally 
upon its seat. 






285 



SUPERHEATED STEAM. 

During the past few years many tests have been made 
with devices known as the "superheaters," which are at- 
tachments to the locomotive designed to reduce cylinder 
condensation by superheating the steam. It is claimed 
that this superheating results in economy of water con- 
sumption and of fuel. 

The following description applies to what is known as 
the "Schenectady" superheater for locomotives. 

It is claimed that this type of superheater overcomes 
the objectionable features of previous types, among 
which have been the use of bent tubes and the necessity 
of disconnecting the whole superheater in order to 
gain access to leaky boiler tubes. 





PLATE 128. 



PLATE 129. 



A feature in the construction of this superheater is 
the T-pipe, the regular conventional T-pipe being replaced 
by one of special design, shown in Plates 128, 129 and 
130. This T-pipe is subdivided into two compartments 
by a horizontal partition, and extends nearly across the 
smoke-box, so that steam entering the T-pipe from the 
dry pipe is admitted to the upper compartment only. To 
the front side of the T-pipes are attached eleven header 
castings (Plate 129), the joints being made with copper 
wire gaskets. 



286 



SUPERHEATED STEAM. 




SUPERHEATED STEAM. 287 

Each header casting is also subdivided into two com- 
partments, in this case by a vertical partition, and five pipes 
or flues of one and one-sixteenth inch outside diameter 
are inserted through holes in the front wall of each 
header. These one and one-sixteenth inch tubes are ex- 
panded into special plugs, which are firmly screwed into 
the vertical partition wall, and the five tubes are enclosed 
by five one and three-fourths inch tubes, which are ex- 
panded into the rear wall of the header casting in the 
usual way. Each nest of two tubes is encased by a regular 
three-inch boiler tube; which is expanded into the front 
and back tube sheets in the usual manner. The back end 
of each one and one-sixteenth inch tube is left open, 
the back end of each one and three-fourths inch tube is 
closed, and the back ends of both tubes are located at a 
point about thirty-six inches forward from the back flue 
sheet. The detail arrangement and grouping of three 
flues are shown in Plate 130. The back end of the one 
and three-fourths inch tube is closed by welding, and the 
tail is so formed as to support this tube in the upper part 
of the three-inch tube, thus leaving a clear space below. 
Plate 131 shows that the one and one-sixteenth inch tubes 
are concentric, with the one and three-fourths inch tubes 
at their back ends, but the one and one-sixteenth inch 
tubes are allowed to drop and rest on the bottom of the 
one and three- fourths inch tubes. 

Steam from the dry pipe enters the upper compart- 
ment of the T-pipe and thence enters the forward com- 
partments of the eleven header castings, then passes back 
through each of the fifty-five one and one-sixteenth inch 
tubes ; thence forward through the annular space between 
the one and one-sixteenth inch tubes and the one and 
three-fourths inch tubes to the rear compartments of 
each of the eleven header castings, thence into the lower 
compartment of the T-pipe, thence by the right and left 



288 SUPERHEATED STEAM. 

steam-pipes to the cylinders. In passing forward through 
the one and three-fourths inch tubes the steam is super- 
heated by the products of combustion passing through 
the three-inch tubes. 

In this particular design fifty-five three-inch tubes 
are inserted in the upper part of the flue sheets, thus 
displacing as many of the regular smaller tubes as would 
occupy the same space. The arrangement of the flues is 
shown in Plates 130 and 131. 

In applying the superheater to a locomotive it is 
necessary to provide some means by which the super- 
heater tubes shall be protected from excessive heat when 
steam is not being passed through them. In this design 
it is accomplished by means of an automatic damper. 
When steam is admitted to the steam-chests, the piston 
of the automatic damper cylinder is forced downward and 
the damper is held open. When the throttle is closed the 
vertical spring immediately back of the automatic damper 
cylinder brings the damper to its closed position, and 
heat is not drawn through the three-inch tubes when the 
engine is not .using steam. In this way the superheater 
tubes are effectively prevented from being overheated. 
In introducing the group of three-inch tubes and applying 
the superheater, the heating surface is slightly reduced, 
but the effect is more than offset by the economical re- 
sults obtained by the superheating process. 

When superheated steam is used great care must be 
taken regarding the lubrication of the cylinders. Forced 
feed is usually used for this purpose instead of the gravity 
feed. 






289 



THE PYLE NATIONAL ELECTRIC 
HEADLIGHT. 

List of Parts. Engine and Dynamo. 



I 


Main Casting, 4 rows 


3i 


Governor Weight 




buckets 


32 


Spring Clamp 


2 


Wheel, 5 rows buck- 


33 


Cast-iron Washer 




ets 


34 


Connecting Link 


2/2 


Wheel, 3 rows buck- 


35 


Governor Stand 




ets 


36 


Cross-Arm 


3 


Engine Cap 


37 


Center Piece 


5 


Box Yoke 


38 


Bronze Plunger 


6 


Oil Cover, outside 


39 


Graphite Ring 


6y 2 


Oil Cover, inside 


41/ 


Governor Springs 


7 


Pole Pieces 


42 


Cap Spring 


8 


End- Thrust 


45 


Armature Lock 


9 


Brass Yoke 




Screw 


10 


Top Brush Holder 


46 


Cap Screw 


11 


Bottom Brush Hold- 


47 


Cap Screw 




• er 


68 


Binding Post Screw 


12 


Commutator 


97 


Insulation Washer 


12/ 


Armature Spider 


97/ 


Insulation 


13 


Commutator Ring 


IOI 


Main Casting 


14 


Dynamo Door 


105 


Dynamo Foot 


W/2 


Name Plate 


no 


Brush Spring Ad- 


15 


Commutator Nut 




justing Screw 


16 


Outside Washer 


III 


Connecting Screw 


17 


Long Bushing 




for Inc. Wire 


18 


Short Bushing 


112 


Connecting Screw 


20 


Stuffing-Box 




for Upper Field 


21 


Gland Nut 


113 


Brush Spring 


2&y 2 


Oil Ring 


114 


Brush Clamp Spring 


25 


Top Field Washer 


115 


Insulating Bushing 


26 


Bottom Field Washer 


Il6 


Brush Clamp 



2QO THE ELECTRIC HEAD-LIGHT. 

27 Dynamo Feet, old 117 Governor Spring 

style Adjusting Screw 

28 Binding Post, large 118 Oil Cover Set-Screw 

hole 123 Top Field Cover 

2%y 2 Binding Post Nut 124 Main Shaft 

29 Binding Post, small 152 Top Field, complete 

hole 1 S 2 ] // 2 Bottom Field, com- 

30 Governor Weight plete 

Clamp 155 Armature 

30^ Governor Saddle 
Screw 

Electricity may well be called the youngest of the 
sciences. It is impossible to define it. All that is known 
is that it is a certain intangible something, having neither 
form, substance nor weight, yet pervading all bodies. 
Its use and transformation into power are, however, gov- 
erned by laws well known to the electrical engineer and 
scientist of the present age. 

The high speeds at which modern trains are operated 
requires, in the interests of safety, the use of a headlight 
of sufficient illuminating power to throw a shaft of light 
far enough in advance of the locomotive, for the engine- 
man to observe any obstruction or irregularity of the 
track in time to bring his train to a stop and avoid an 
accident. For this reason the qualities essential to the 
light are brilliancy and penetration. 

Electricity fulfills the required conditions better than 
any other illuminant and is coming into more general 
use for headlight purposes. At the present time many 
high speed passenger locomotives are equipped with, elec- 
tric headlights. A knowledge of their use and operation 
will, therefore, be of benefit to every engineman. 

The electric headlight, complete, consists of an engine 
and dynamo, and an arc lamp. 



THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 



291 



THE TURBINE ENGINE. 

The engine, known as the Pyle Compound Steam 
Turbine, furnishes the mechanical power that operates 
the dynamo, and thus generates the electric current. It 




292 THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 

consists of a main casting, having three rows of exhaust 
or receiving buckets, the turbine wheel with its three 
rows of buckets, or paddles, the governor and the engine 
cap or head. 

Steam Buckets. The buckets of the turbine wheel 
are all cast solid within the wheel and fit in a recess in 
the main casting and just over or above the stationary 
exhaust or receiving buckets (Plate 132). The pressure 
of the steam against the buckets in the wheel is similar to 
that of water against the blades or paddles of a water 
wheel. 

Steam Passages. Plate 133 shows a vertical section 
cut through the main casting 101 and wheel 2,y 2y from 
which a good idea of the passage of the steam may be 
obtained. The steam enters at A, passes through ports 
f in governor stand 35 (Plate 132), and is directed 
against the first row, a, of buckets, and the wheel 
moves forward. This movement allows the steam to 
pass out through the bottomless buckets of the wheel into 
the series of exhaust passages h, in main casting 101, the 
travel of the steam being reversed in a measure. These 
exhaust passages are so shaped that the movement of the 
steam is again changed to a forward direction and dis- 
charged into the second row, b, of buckets, and so on 
until the final exhaust is made to central chamber E, and 
thence to the atmosphere. 

No internal lubrication is required, as this engine has 
no reciprocating parts, is perfectly balanced and has no 
wearing surfaces. 

Governor. t A governor similar in design to the 
old style centrifugal governor, which has two heavy balls 
carried by the two arms, used on stationary engines, is 
used to control the flow of steam to the turbine wheel. 

The governor weights 31 (Plate 132), four in num- 
ber, are simple bell cranks and the connection to the 



THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 



293 




PLATE 133. 



wheel is made by clamp 30. The shorter end of weight 
31 extends beneath center piece 37 and is held down in 
this position by four sets of springs 41 J4. Resting with- 
in center piece 37 is a bronze ring 39. The ring is 
known as the graphite ring, and is drilled full of holes, 
and these holes are then filled with graphite. Its pur- 
pose is to lubricate the face of the cross-arm. Both the 
cross-arm and the ring will wear for an indefinite period. 
Plate 134 shows a view of cross-arm 36, connecting 
link 34, governor stand 35, and bronze plungers 38. 
There are two governor stands, two connecting links, and 
the cross-arm has two ends instead of one. Attached to 
the ends of cross-arm 36 are the connecting links, and at 
the other ends of these links are the governor valves or 
bronze plungers 38. The connecting links are suspended 
by the governor stands 35, the governor stands are se- 
cured to the main casting 101 (Plate 132), and the gov- 
ernor valves or plungers 38 work within the governor 
stands. 



294 THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 




86.' se 8£/ ae 

PLATE 134. 

As the turbine wheel 2^ increases its speed, the gov- 
ernor weights revolve more rapidly about the vertical 
axis of the shaft, and tend to move outward. In doing 
so they raise center piece 37, which pushes cross-arm 36 
farther away from the wheel. The ends of the cross- 
arm being attached to one of the two ends of the con- 
necting links 34, carries these ends of the two connecting 
links out with it and away from the wheel. The link 
being fulcrumed in the governor stand, this movement 
will force the governor plungers in toward the seat, thus 
diminishing the supply of steam to the turbine wheel and 
preventing the wheel from attaining an excessive speed. 

When the centrifugal force of the wheel is great 
enough to carry the ends of the governor weights 31 out 
and at right angles to the face of the turbine wheel, the 
governor plungers or valves 38 should then be on the 
seat of the steam passage to the turbine wheel. If the 
governor weights are allowed to travel beyond right 
angle position, the governor will not control the speed, 
and it will then be necessary to throttle the steam, or the 



THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 295 

speed of the armature will become so high that an elec- 
tromotive force will be built up to an extent that will 
soon destroy the copper electrode in the lamp. 

The electromotive force or voltage is built up by the 
revolving of the armature; the higher the speed of the 
armature, the greater the electromotive force or voltage. 

Effects of Varying Loads on Engine. The load 
thrown upon the engine by the dynamo varies accord- 
ing to the length of the arc at the lamp; the shorter 
the arc, the greater the load. When the arc is short the 
throttle openings must be large enough to admit a suffi- 
cient volume of steam to the turbine wheel to maintain the 
speed of the armature at a certain point. As the arc grows 
longer, due to the burning away of the carbon, the load 
on the engine becomes lighter, and if the steam supply is 
not diminished at this particular time, the turbine and 
armature will soon attain a speed at which the voltage 
will be built up so high that the copper electrode in the 
lamp will be fused. Or, if the load should suddenly be 
taken off the engine by one of the main wires breaking, 
or the carbon sticking up in the clutch of the lamp, there 
would be danger of the turbine wheel attaining a velocity 
at which it might be thrown to pieces by centrifugal 
force. 

CENTRIFUGAL BRAKE. 

List of Parts. 

133 Brake Shoe I 35~b Brake Saddle Screw, 
133-a Brake Shoe Roller large 

134 Brake Shoe Spring 136 Adjusting Nut 

135 Brake Saddle 

To prevent any possibility of accidents being caused 
by varying loads on the engine a centrifugal brake, 
is attached to the turbine wheel. Plate 135 
shows a sectional view of this brake. It is placed 



296 



THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 



on the back side of the wheel 2^, and is so ad- 
justed that it acts at a speed of about 150 revolutions per 
minute greater than that at which the governor acts. 
When the wheel attains a velocity great enough to over- 
come the tension of spring 134, the brake shoes 133 
travel out until they come in contact with the wall of the 
main casting 101, and so prevent the speed of the turbine 
wheel from exceeding a certain limit. The application 
of this brake began with the equipment, bearing the man- 
ufacturer's serial number 2600, and it will not be found, 
nor can it be applied to equipments with a lower serial 
number than this. 




PLATE 135. 

To adjust the .centrifugal brake, the armature, engine 
cap and governor should be removed, and the wheel and 
shaft pulled out, giving free access to the brake. To de- 
crease the speed, all nuts should be turned to the left, and 
to increase speed, all nuts should be turned to the right. 
One-half turn of the nuts will change the speed at which 



THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 297 

the brake will act, 150 revolutions per minute. How- 
ever, it is seldom necessary to readjust the brake if cor- 
rect travel of the governor valves is maintained. 

Governor Plungers and Valves. The face of the 
governor plungers 38 will eventually become cut and 
worn by the passage of the steam, and when this 
condition exists the supply of steam to the wheel will 
not be diminished when maximum speed is attained, and 
the electromotive force will be built up, causing the elec- 
trode in the lamp to fuse. Valves that have become badly 
worn must be faced off. When this has been done, and 
the governor weights are drawn at right angles to the 
face of the turbine wheel, the governor plungers 38 will 
not rest on the seat of the steam supply. 

To cause the governor valves to seat firmly when the 
governor weights are drawn to right angles with the 
face of the turbine wheel, the ends of cross-arm 36 should 
be bent back and away from the face of the wheel. To 
determine how much the arms should be bent, the gov- 
ernor weights should be pulled out by hand until they 
are straight, or at right angles to the face of the wheel 
and held in this position. The plunger valve 38 should 
be moved in by hand until it seats. A rule should then 
be placed on the end of governor stand 35, the valve 
pulled back and the amount of travel noted. Half of 
the measurement shown is the distance the ends of the 
cross-arm 36 should be bent away from the face of the 
wheel to bring the plungers or valves on their seat, which 
will give correct travel. 

Whenever it is necessary to remove the engine cap for 
the purpose of making any changes in the governor, the 
end thrust or play should always be adjusted before the 
engine cap is removed, for if the cross-arm is bent to 
change the travel of the valves, and the end thrust is 
afterward taken up, the valves will be carried in almost, 



298 THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 

if not entirely, to the seat of the steam supply, and will 
be held in that position until the engine cap is removed, 
and the cross-arm again adjusted to conform to the posi- 
tion of the wheel. 

Bad water, or foaming of the engine, may at times 
cause the governor valves to stick. If one of the valves 
sticks open when the load is on, and the dynamo is run- 
ning at maximum speed, it is a certainty that the point 
of the copper electrode will be fused. The fusing of the 
electrode can be detected by a shaft of green light thrown 
on the track, instead of the usual white light, for when 
copper is fused a green light is given off. The speed of 
the turbine should be reduced by partly closing the throt- 
tle as soon as this green light is observed. 

If one of the valves 38 sticks shut, it can be detected 
by the light becoming dim, and if the steam pressure in 
the boiler drops very low, the light will go out, for the 
reason that enough steam to pull the load will not be ad- 
mitted through the one open port. This would be par- 
ticularly the case with equipments applied to locomotives 
of low boiler pressure. 

The sticking of the governor valves is usually caused 
by lime or scale in the pipe. They can often be released 
immediately by jarring casting 101 at the point where 
steam is introduced to the valves. In almost every case it 
will be found that it is the top valve which sticks. 

It is unnecessary to lubricate the turbine wheel or 
the governor plungers, as there is no frictional wear. 
Before starting on each trip the plug in the 
top of engine casting 101 should be removed, however, 
and a little coal oil or engine oil introduced at this point. 
When the steam is turned on, this oil will be carried 
against the governor plungers, and will cut away any 
scale that may have started to form ort the parts, thus 
preventing the valves from sticking. 



THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 299 

The speed at which the armature revolves determines 
the voltage, and the efficiency of the arc. As the turbine 
wheel is responsible for the speed of the armature, it is 
evident that anything that offers an easier avenue for the 
passage of steam to' the atmosphere than its regular 
course through the turbine wheel, will prevent the pro- 
duction of a good light. 

As the steam is delivered to the turbine wheel at di- 
ametrically opposite points, the wear to the bushing in 
engine cap 3 should be uniform. 

The kinetic energy attained by the wheel will cause 
it to revolve for some little time after the steam is shut 
off, and after it comes to a stop the weight of the wheel 
will rest on the bottom of the bushing. The governor 
stand 35, which directs the steam against the buckets of 
the turbine wheel, is suspended to main casting 101, and 
if bearing 18 in the engine cap becomes worn from lack 
of lubrication, the turbine wheel will wear off the edge of 
the lower governor stand and drop down and away from 
the top governor stand so far that the steam will pass 
around on either side of the wheel to exhaust E (Plate 

133). 

When these conditions exist, a new short bushing 

should be used to replace the worn one in the engine cap 
3, and a new governor stand 35 and a new stuffing-box 
bearing 20 put in. 

The above conditions will be apparent by a failure to 
get up speed while the light is burning. A governor 
plunger stuck closed will, however, cause the same 
trouble. When the engine cap is removed to locate the 
trouble, it can readily be noted whether one of the plung- 
ers is stuck, or the wheel is down and too far away from 
the governor stand to direct the steam against the buckets. 



3 oo THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 

MAINTENANCE OF TURBINE ENQINE. 

When a turbine engine has been in service for some 
time, the bearings neglected and not properly lubricated, 
the bushings not renewed and the end thrust maintained 
too close, the wheel will be carried out and away from 
main casting 101. On account of the close adjustment 
of the end thrust the steam will be delivered against the 
back edge of the buckets of the turbine wheel, instead 
of to the center, and will pass around on the back side of 
the wheel to the exhaust E. This will render it impos- 
sible to get up speed with the light burning. 

The source of the trouble can be located by removing 
the engine cap, and a new cast-iron washer 33 and a new 
bushing in engine cap 3 will be required. If there are 
no new parts on hand, temporary repairs can be made by 
loosening the screws in end thrust casting 8, tapping the 
end thrust casting on the left side (facing turbine) until 
it is loose on the shaft, moving the wheel as far in toward 
the main casting as it will go and placing a metal washer 
between the flange of the bushing 18 and cast-iron washer 
33. Care should be taken that the washer used is only of 
sufficient thickness to take up the lost motion between the 
bushing flange and the cast-iron washer, and to maintain 
the wheel in such a position that the steam will be deliv- 
ered directly against the center of the buckets. If this 
washer is too thick it will be impossible to replace the en- 
gine cap. The flange wear is very slight, and it is seldom 
necessary to renew the bushing on this account. 

It will thus be seen that there are several defects which 
may exist in the turbine engine which will result in lower- 
ing the speed of the dynamo and producing a poor light, 
and other conditions that will permit the speed of the 
armature to become too high, building up a voltage that 
will cause fusing of the copper electrode. The speed of 
the turbine is not, however, influenced to any marked ex- 



THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 301 

tent by changing the tension of regulating spring 41^ of 
the governor. As already explained the duty of the gov- 
ernor springs is to offer the proper resistance to the move- 
ment of the governor weights, and the purpose of the gov- 
ernor weights is to control the amount of steam delivered 
to the turbine wheel at different speeds, the position of the 
governor weights being determined by the centrifugal 
force exerted by the v/heel. If it is difficult to attain the 
proper speed or to maintain the speed with the slight fluc- 
tuations of boiler pressure, the engine cap 3 should be re- 
moved and a thorough inspection made for the troubles 
already named, before the tension of the governor springs 
is changed. One-half turn of all governor screws 117 
will change the speed at which the governor acts 100 rev- 
olutions per minute. To increase the speed of the turbine 
and armature, the screws should be turned to the right, 
and to decrease speed they should be turned to the left. 

End Thrust. End thrust is given to this device 
in order to prevent scratching or grooving of the com- 
mutator. All carbon brushes are not entirely free from 
hard spots or grit. If it were not for the shifting of the 
brushes, the hard spots in them would soon wear the 
commutator down unevenly in such a manner that it 
would become useless, and the dynamo would refuse to 
build up. 

There should be not less than one thirty-second of an 
inch end thrust in the shaft when the engine is cold. To 
adjust the end thrust, the screws in end thrust casting 8 
should be loosened, and one hand placed on the commuta- 
tor, so that, by moving in and out on it, the amount of 
the movement can be judged. By tapping casting 8 light- 
ly on the left side (facing the dynamo), the end move- 
ment of the shaft will be taken up. After the end thrust 
has been adjusted, the screws should be tightened up. If 
the screws become loose as the shaft revolves to the right, 



3 02 THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 

(when facing the dynamo), and the end thrust is reduced 
by moving the casting in the opposite direction, the shaft 
will be carried in until the friction between the flange of 
bushing 18 and cast-iron washer 33 becomes so great that 
the engine will be stalled. This condition can be detected 
by the escape of a large amount of steam at the exhaust 
and the refusal of the engine to move, but it can quickly 
be remedied by tapping the casting to the right until it re- 
leases the shaft. The end movement should then be ad- 
justed in the manner already explained, and the engine 
will be ready for service. 

It will be noted that cast-iron washer 33 has a small 
dowel attached to its outer side, which fits into a small 
hole in the hub of the turbine wheel, and is for the pur- 
pose of holding the washer in a stationary position. All 
wear of the washer comes on its face, which is in contact 
with the flange of bushing 18. If this dowel is broken, 
the washer will be carried around by the rotation of the 
shaft, and its thin and narrow outer surface will be worn 
away rapidly, thus increasing the end thrust beyond the 
point desired. Whenever engine cap 3 is removed for re- 
pairs or inspection, this cast-iron washer should be closely 
inspected, and if the dowel is broken off it should at once 
be renewed. Otherwise, in a short time the steam will 
be delivered to the back edge of the buckets of the turbine 
wheel, and it will be difficult to maintain the speed of the 
turbine and armature at a point that will produce a good 
light, with the fluctuations of boiler pressure met with 
under ordinary conditions. 

LUBRICATION. 

While the bearings of this device require comparative- 
ly little lubrication, it should not be neglected, for nothing 
will increase the cost of maintenance quicker than the 
failure to furnish a proper supply of lubricant at the 
proper time. 



THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 303 

Oil Rings. The oil rings 22y 2 are suspended by 
and around the shaft and into the oil cellars at bearings 17 
and 18. Bearing 17 has nearly twice the length of bear- 
ing 18. On account of the action of the steam passing 
out of exhaust chamber E and the condensation in the 
box, it is necessary to introduce a little oil in the cellar 
of bearing 18 each trip. 

Before rilling the oil cellar the drain cock should be 
opened, the water of condensation drained off, and the 
drain cock closed. Enough valve oil should be introduced 
so that loose ring 22*^ suspended by the shaft will touch 
the oil in the cellar; about three or four tablespoonfuls 
will ordinarily be sufficient. On account of the heat of 
the engine it is not practicable to use an oil with less body 
than valve oil for this purpose. 

In lubricating bearing 17, however, the best results 
will be obtained by the use of black or engine oil, as the 
loose ring 22^2 carries a small quantity of lubricant up 
during each revolution and deposits it on the shaft, from 
whence it passes through grooves in the bushings to the 
bearing proper. An oil with too heavy a body would be 
too thick to feed through these grooves and would drop 
back into the cellar, the bearings would not -receive a 
proper supply of lubricant and the result would be a cut 
shaft and bushing. The same good judgment should be 
used by the engineman in oiling these bearings as in fill- 
ing the oil cups on the locomotive. 

The supply of oil in the cellars should be just sufficient 
for the rings 22^ to touch it. If the inside cellar is 
filled too full, the oil will be thrown out at the end by the 
motion of the locomotive, and may find its way to the 
armature and destroy the insulation of the coils. 

A quarter-inch hole is drilled in the side of the box 
yoke to act as an overflow. 

This bearing should be examined each trip, but it is 



304 THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 

seldom necessary to oil it oftener than once or twice a 
week. 

Particular attention should be paid to stuffing-box 20, 
whidh should be packed with lamp wicking- and kept tight 
enough to prevent blowing. The packing in this box is 
only required to withstand the exhaust pressure, which 
is very low, yet if steam is allowed to blow at this point 
it will follow along the shaft and blow off the oil that has 
been deposited there by the loose ring, not only pre- 
venting the bearing from receiving its lubrication, but also 
blowing the oil into the coils of the armature. No doubt 
there are many enginemen who -lubricate this bearing 
most faithfully, yet pay little attention to the steam blow- 
ing from the stuffing-box, and fail to understand why 
the bushing wears so fast. 

The shaft revolves thirty times each second when 
running at maximum speed, and if the bearings are not 
properly lubricated the shaft and bearing will soon be 
ruined. If properly lubricated, however, the wear will 
take place entirely in the boxes. The bearings can be 
easily and quickly removed without removing the equip- 
ment from the locomotive. 

TH£ DYNAMO. 

The dynamo is simple in form, consisting of two main 
parts, an armature, which in revolving between the two 
pole pieces 7 (Plate 132), induces an electromotive force 
in the copper wires wound upon it, and a field magnet, 
152 and 1523/2, whose function is to produce a field of 
magnetic lines to be cut by the armature wires as they 
revolve. 

The Armature. The armature is connected di- 
rectly to the engine shaft, and revolves with it. The elec- 
trical balance is absolute, and there should be no sparks 
seen at either of the two brushes. 



THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 305 

The armature is held in place on the engine shaft by 
a single screw, which can easily be removed when neces- 
sary. The brush holders are fixed, and the brushes can 
be taken out and replaced without changing the tension 
of the springs. 

This type of dynamo is dependent for its action in 
building up, upon the presence of what is known as re- 
sidual magnetism in its field magnet. 

The duties of the fields are to produce a magnetic 
field, which is accomplished by passing a current of elec- 
tricity through their coils, but when the current no longer 
circulates through the coils, the magnetism disappears, 
with the exception of a very small flux, which is called 
residual magnetism. This residual magnetism is respon- 
sible for the weak magnetic field, which is always present 
between the pole pieces and the field pieces. 

When steam is admitted to the turbine wheel, the 
armature, which is attached to the engine shaft, and re- 
volves in the armature chamber, cuts the few lines of 
force contained in this magnetic field, and a small electro- 
motive force is set up in the armature. The ends of the 
field coils being connected to the brushes, and the latter 
being in contact with the commutator, a closed circuit is 
formed through the field coils. This small electromo- 
tive force sends the current through the exciting coils, 
which instantly increase the strength of field magnet 152 
and 152^4, and an increased electromotive force is in- 
duced in the armature. This results in a stronger current 
being sent through the exciting coils and the increased 
magnetism induces an increased electromotive force in 
the armature. This process of building up continues 
until at a certain speed of the armature the voltage attains 
a maximum value, beyond which it cannot be increased 
without increasing the speed. The duties of the arma- 
ture are to concentrate and direct the flow of current, 
and the voltage is determined by the speed. 



306 THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 

The Commutator. The function of the commu- 
tator is to collect the currents produced by the cutting 
of the lines of force. It consists of a combination of cop- 
per bars, separated by insulation, forming a cylinder 
around the armature shaft, and connected to the armature 
wires. The brushes are pressed against the commutator 
by springs 113 (Plate 132), and make a sliding contact 
with it. The brushes must have a certain amount of flex- 
ibility in order to adjust themselves to any irregularities 
in the surface of the commutator, and also to avoid 
scratching and cutting the commutator bars. 

Production of the Electric Spark or Light. The 
production of an electric spark or light is affected by 
placing opposition or resistance in the path of an elec- 
tric current. When a current of electricity in passing 
through its conductor reaches a point where it cannot 
pass easily, as, for example, in the incandescent lamp, 
wherein a large wire is suddenly reduced to a small 
one, heat and light are at once produced. 

A spark or continuous arc is produced by bringing 
two points of carbon in contact with one another. When 
the current is established, the carbons are drawn apart a 
short distance by the mechanism of the lamp, and an 
electric flame, known as the arc, is produced. This arc. 
cannot be produced if the carbon points remain in con- 
tact, and it will not be continuous if the points of the two 
carbons are separated too far. 

Brush Holders and Brushes. As the current is 
generated in the armature wires, collected at the com- 
mutator, and flows from the bars of the latter into 
the brushes and thence through the circuit, it is evident 
that the contact between the metallic bars of the commu- 
tator and the brushes must be smooth and true, and that 
the brushes must bear upon the commutator with the 
proper pressure. 

If the pressure is too light the brushes will jump and 



THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 307 

spark, and if it is too heavy, the brushes will cut and 
scratch the commutator. Correct pressure is attained 
when the brushes collect the full strength of the current 
without sparking, while the pressure upon the commu- 
tator is just sufficient to overcome any vibration caused 
by the jar of the locomotive when in motion. 

With the old style brush holder the adjustment is 
made by means of a brush spring 113 and adjustment 
screw no. With this style of holder it is necessary to 
give daily attention to the spring tension, which should be 
tightened only to prevent sparking. 

On all the latest machines the brush holders are pro- 
vided with a fixed tension spring, which maintains a pre- 
determined pressure of the brush against the commuta- 
tor at all times. This spring cannot work loose nor can 
its tension be changed by the engineman. With this 
brush holder there should be no commutator troubles if 
the latter is kept free from dirt. 

When a brush is not bearing with sufficient pressure 
against the commutator bars, it is called improper con- 
tact, and will result in sparking at the brushes. This, 
however, is not caused by too great a tension of the 
spring. 

Applying Brushes. When it becomes necessary 
to apply a set of new brushes, or to tune up the old 
ones, a piece of No. "o" sandpaper should be placed on 
the commutator with the rough side against the brush. 
The paper should be pulled through and under the brush 
in the direction of the rotation of the armature, and this 
should be continued until the brush is fitted to and has 
the same contour as the commutator (Plate 136). The 
reason for fitting the brush in this manner is,, that this 
will pull it over against the brush holder in the same posi- 
tion in which it is carried when the dynamo is in opera- 
tion, resulting in a perfect bearing. 



3 o8 THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 

Particular attention was necessary with the old style 
brush holders to see that they were always clean, as when 
dirty they were liable to cause the brush to stick, which 
would result in sparking. 

When the brushes are worn to a smooth and polished 
bearing and the commutator takes on a high, dark cherry 
polish, the contact is perfect and there will be practically 
no wear on them. 




PLATE 136. 

COMMUTATOR AND BRUSH DEFECTS. 
The commutator is a vital part of a dynamo, and, to- 
gether with the brushes, requires constant attention to 
keep it in a satisfactory working condition, and it must 
be mechanically clean to run without sparking. Spots of 
paint or dirt may be on it and get between the brushes 
and the copper bars. This will prevent a perfect contact 
at one point and sparking will result. Close attention 
must be given it, and sparking of the brushes must be 
avoided as far as possible, as this causes the edges of the 



THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 309 

copper bars to fuse. The fusing action roughens it, which 
renders commutation still more difficult. Trouble of this 
kind once started grows rapidly worse until it is neces- 
sary to remove the armature from the shaft and true up 
the commutator in a lathe. 

Another cause of improper contact and sparking is 
the projection of the mica insulation above the surface of 
the commutator, preventing the brushes from touching 
the metallic parts. The mica insulation is much harder 
than the brushes and copper bars, and consequently does 
not wear away as rapidly. After the machine has been 
run for some time, the copper bars will become worn 
and the insulation will project above them, causing im- 
proper contact and sparking. 

To prevent the mica from causing improper contact, 
it should be kept dressed down about one sixty- 
fourth of an inch below the surface of the commutator. 
This can be done by means of a file, but a better method 
is to make a small scraper, and cut or scrape the mica 
down to the proper height. This method lessens the pos- 
sibility of increasing the width of the grooves between 
the copper bars, which would be objectionable. These 
grooves soon fill up with dirt, carbon dust, etc., and, if 
not cleaned out occasionally, will result in a short cir- 
cuit across the commutator. 

The process of dressing down the mica insulation 
will raise a slight burr on the edges of the copper bars, 
which must be removed. This can be done by cutting a 
strip of No. "o" sandpaper about the width of the com- 
mutator surface, removing the brushes from their hold- 
ers, starting the dynamo, and, holding the sandpaper by 
the ends, working it back and forth lengthwise of the 
commutator, covering the entire surface and continuing 
until its entire face is perfectly smooth (Plate 136). The 
dynamo should then be stopped, the commutator wiped 



3 io THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 

perfectly clean with a damp cloth or a piece of waste, 
and then rubbed dry with a clean cloth or waste. The 
surface of the commutator should be rubbed until it will 
not soil a white cloth. The bars should be rubbed length- 
wise in order to remove any small particles of sand which 
may have become lodged in the grooves. If these par- 
ticles are left undisturbed they will be thrown up and 
caught between the bars and brushes, when the dynamo 
is started, producing sparking. 

Emery paper should never be used on the commu- 
tator, and sandpaper must not be used unless the sur- 
face is cut or scratched. As the commutator is the vital 
part of the dynamo and proper contact between the 
brushes and the commutator bars is necessary to insure 
satisfactory results, it is the duty of the engineman or in- 
spector to see that the commutator is mechanically clean 
before starting the dynamo. 

MAIN WIRES AND THEIR CONNEC- 
TIONS. 

The wires that conduct the current to and from the 
lamp are connected to binding posts 28 and 29 on the bot- 
tom brush holder (Plate 132). One of these posts, known 
as the positive binding post, has a large hole, in which is 
inserted the lead wire which conducts the current from the 
dynamo to the lamp. The other post, known as the nega- 
tive binding post, has a smaller hole, in which the wire 
is inserted that conducts the return current to the dy- 
namo, after it has passed through the lamp. The end of 
the wire which is connected to the positive binding post 
is doubled back, so that it will not enter the hole in the 
negative binding post, preventing improper connection. 
Two binding posts similar to those at the dynamo are 
attached to the lamp. The positive post has a large hole 
and the negative a smaller one. The main wire from the 
positive post must be connected to the positive post at 
the lamp, and the main wire for the return current must 



THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 311 

be connected at both negative posts. This allows the cur- 
rent from the dynamo to pass first into and through the 
top carbon, which, resting on the electrode, allows the 
current to pass through the electrode and electrode hold- 
er, secured by clamp 53 (Plate 137), and then into a 
wire which is attached to this clamp. This wire con- 
ducts the current into and through solenoid 65, and on to 
the negative binding post and thence through the re- 
turn wire back to the dynamo, thus completing a circuit. 

Open and Closed Circuits. A circuit is closed, 
when it forms a continuous conducting path for the 
passage of an electric current, and open when a break 
occurs in the continuity of such path in such a manner 
that a current cannot flow. 

The purpose of the insulation of the wires is to con- 
fine the flow of current to the conducting medium, or 
wire, and along a predetermined path. If this insulation 
becomes distorted or is destroyed, and the wires are 
brought in contact with one another, either directly or 
through the medium of some other conducting material, 
the current will not flow through the path of high re- 
sistance which leads through the lamp, but will follow 
the path of least resistance from one wire to the other, 
forming what is known as a short circuit, and resulting 
in a failure of the light. 

If either of the brushes fails to touch the commutator, 
if one or both of the main wires are broken, if there is 
no carbon in the lamp, or the carbon does not touch the 
point of the copper electrode, there will be an open cir- 
cuit. 

It will be noted that there is a distinct difference be- 
tween a short circuit and an open circuit. In a short cir- 
cuit a complete circuit is formed, but with an open cir- 
cuit no circuit is formed over which the current can flow. 



312 



THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 



THE LAMP. 



78-a Clutch Rod Weight 

78-b Clutch Rod 

79 Thumb Nut 

8 1 -a Thumb Screw 

87 Carbon Clamp, male 

Carbon Clamp, female 

Magnet Yoke 

Carbon Holder Spring 
92-a Top Clutch Spring 
93 



88 
90 
9 1 



List of Parts. 

28 Binding Post, large 74 Set-Screw 

hole 
2814 Binding Post Nut 

29 Binding Post, small 

hole 

40 Reflector Clamp, 

bottom 
40^ Reflector Clamp, top 

41 Reflector Support 
44 Clutch 
49 Extension Base 
.50^ Lamp Base 
51^ Lamp Column 
52 Bottom, large clamp 

Bottom, small clamp 
Hand Nut 
Hand Washer 
Top Bracket 

Spring Tension Screw 102 
58^ Spring Tension Nut 

59 Top Lever 

60 Small Lever 
6 1 -a Dashpot 
61-b Dashpot Plunger 

62 Magnet Insulation 

63 Magnet Long Link 
63^ Magnet Short Link 

64 Magnet 

65 Solenoid 

68 Binding Post Screw 

69 Top Lever Screw 



53 

54 
55 
57 
58 



Tension Spring- 
Insulation Fibre 
Insulation Washer 
Vertical Adjusting 

Screw 
Vertical Adjusting 

Nut 
Upper Carbon Holder 
Clutch Foot 
102-a Clutch Foot Rod 
106 Electrode Support 
Electrode Set-Screw 
Electrode Lock-Nut 
Copper Electrode 
Solenoid Screw 
Reflector Clamp Screw 
Clutch Weight Screw 
Electrode Holder, 

complete 
Top Carbon Holder, 

complete 



97 



99 



100 



107 

108 

109 

120 

121 

122 

200 



300 



Carbon and Electrode (Plate 137). The carbon 



THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 



313 



v Carbon 
SMolder , 
comf>CeU300 




PLATE 137. 
through which the current first flows is called the 
positive carbon, and with a direct current, that is, 
when all the current generated by the dynamo flows 
through the wires in one direction, an arc or crater is 
formed in the positive carbon. The electric lamp, com- 



3 i4 THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 

monly used for street lighting and known as the "arc 
lamp" was so named because it was found that when a 
current was passed from one carbon point to another, 
an arc was formed in the positive carbon. 

The temperature of the electric arc is about 7,000 
degrees Fahrenheit. The melting point of copper is 1,996 
Fahrenheit, yet, excepting under certain conditions, the 
copper electrode with its point of from one-sixteenth to 
three-sixteenths of an inch, which is exposed to the tem- 
perature of the arc, 7,000 degrees, will not fuse. This 
is due to the protective action of the carbon. 

When the arc is produced between the carbon and the 
copper electrode, the carbon slowly burns away through 
oxidization, and small particles of it are torn away from 
its point and volatilized between the two points. A por- 
tion of these volatilized particles is deposited on the point 
of the copper electrode and the current flows through it 
to the electrode. These particles of carbon have a very 
high resistance and become intensely heated by the pass- 
age of the current, and as long as they deposit on the 
point of the electrode, the electrode will not fuse. 

As previously explained, the speed at which the arma- 
ture revolves determines the voltage or electromotive 
force, and this in turn determines the temperature of the 
arc. When the speed of the armature produces a voltage 
high enough to raise the temperature beyond a certain 
point, these small particles of carbon are dissipated be- 
fore they reach the point of the copper electrode, and the 
electrode will melt or fuse, giving off a green light. 

When the green light is observed, and there is noth- 
ing else so intensely green as a shaft of light thrown 
out by the headlight when the electrode is fusing, the 
speed of the dynamo should be reduced by throttling, 
and a report of the facts made upon arrival at the ter- 
minal. 



THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 



315 




PLATE 138. 

If the wires are connected in such a manner that the 
current can pass through the solenoid 65, and enter the 
copper electrode 109, and pass through the electrode and 
into the carbon, the usual course of the current will be 
reversed, and the copper electrode will be converted into 
the positive point. The arc is always created in the car- 



316 THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 

bon point, which the current enters first. As copper will 
fuse at a temperature of less than 2,000 degrees Fahren- 
heit, and the temperature of the arc is 7,000 degrees Fah- 
renheit, the copper electrode would be rapidly destroyed 
if the wires were not changed at the binding posts in 
such a manner that the current would enter the lamp at 
the top, and flow down through the carbon. 

It is customary with some manufacturers sending out 
wire to be used between the dynamo and lamp to put 
lead ferrules on the ends of the wire used to connect 
the two positive posts, so that there can be no possibility 
of error in making the connection. 

An engineman should examine his wires carefully and 
see that the wire which is connected with the positive 
posts has ferrules on the ends, or if not, whether the ends 
are doubled back. If this is not the case, to prevent any 
possibility of future errors in connections, he should strip 
off the insulation far enough to permit the ends to be 
doubled back. 

It is possible to ascertain whether the wires are cor- 
rectly connected without waiting for the electrode to be 
destroyed, which will destroy the focus of the light to 
a considerable extent. The point of the positive carbon, 
which the current enters first, is always heated first, this 
being due to intensely; high temperature of the arc. 
When the dynamo builds up, and the arc is produced, 
the point of the carbon will be brought to a white heat 
almost instantly, if the wires are properly connected. If, 
on the other hand, the carbon point is not brought to 
a white heat within a second or two, it indicates that the 
current is being delivered to the lamp at the wrong bind- 
ing post, and the wires should be changed. 

If two carbons are used instead of one carbon and an 
electrode, the point of the positive carbon is the first to 
become heated. The wires in the lamp equipped with 



THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 317 

two carbons should, however, be so connected that the 
top carbon will always be the positive one. 

This is essential, for the reason that the top or posi- 
tive carbon burns away much faster than the lower or 
negative one. The positive carbon is about twelve inches 
long and the bottom carbon holder is so constructed that 
it will hold a carbon of about half that length. As the 
positive carbon burns away more than twice as quickly 
as the negative carbon, and is fed down by its own 
weight, the rate of feed being governed by the mechan- 
ism of the lamp, if the bottom one is converted into the 
positive one by the introduction of the current at the 
bottom of the lamp, it would soon be burned up. The 
top carbon would, however, continue to feed down, main- 
taining the same distance between the two points, and 
the intense heat of the arc would soon destroy the bot- 
tom carbon holder. 

How the Light or Arc Is Produced. The electric 
light, or arc, is produced only when the proper amount 
of resistance is offered to the flow of an electric cur- 
rent, and this light is not produced by the burning 
of electricity. The electricity that is concentrated in 
the armature and passes to the lamp returns to the 
armature, but its pressure or voltage is dissipated in 
the arc produced at the lamp. If this were not the case, 
and if the carbon were held on the point of the elec- 
trode when the dynamo is in operation, the effect on the 
turbine would be similar to that which would be pro- 
duced in the cylinder of a locomotive, if the steam after 
driving the piston to one end of the cylinder were un- 
able to escape to the atmosphere. 

This might be called a short circuit through the lamp, 
as there would be no resistance offered to the flow of 
current. The circuit would be closed and the. pressure 
or voltage could not be dissipated. 



3i8 



THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 



If the dynamo were run in this manner for any length 
of time the coils would become hot enough to char the 
insulation of the wires, and the current would leak 
through from layer to layer, producing what is called a 
burned out armature. 

To form the arc and so produce the light, the carbons 
must be pulled apart a short distance. This is ac- 




PLATE 139. 

complished by means of solenoid 65, the coil on the lamp. 
When an electric current flows through a coil of 
wire, this coil becomes an electromagnet. The solenoid 
is an electromagnet, and provides the automatic mechan- 
ism, which feeds the carbon down as fast as it is con- 
sumed and maintains the arc at the proper length. The 



THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 



319 



mechanism becomes weaker as the length of the arc in- 
creases, and when the arc reaches a certain length the 
magnet becomes weak enough to release the clutch, 
which allows the carbon to drop, through gravity, to- 
ward the electrode. Before the carbon can drop to the 
electrode the magnet is strengthened and the downward 
motion of the carbon is arrested. 



■ 








■ 


^ 






sSB 




w?**w 




• 




1 _'-:.'.;:':— 


1 ' M" 










. 




*«,*- N 



PLATE 140. 

When the dynamo is stopped for any considerable 
length of time, the small particles of carbon that have 
been deposited on the point of the electrode form a hard 
scale when cool. When the dynamo is again started this 
scale will offer a resistance too great for the weak cur- 
rent present in the dynamo to overcome. Therefore, 



3 20 THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 

the point of the electrode should be cleaned off at the 
end of each trip. When the dynamo is started the points 
of the carbon and the electrode must be in contact or 
no current can be established, and it will be impossible 
for the dynamo to build up. 

The thumbscrew 8i-a (Plate 137) in copper electrode 
holder 200 should be slackened off from the electrode, 
and the electrode removed from its holder on each trip. 
Any scale which has formed around the electrode should 
be removed. Otherwise in a very short time the deposit 
of scale will become so heavy that it will entirely in- 
sulate the electrode from its holder, causing a break in 
the circuit, and it will be impossible to get a light, no 
matter how clean the point of the electrode may be. 

Adjusting Spring and Magnet. There is but one 
regulating or adjusting spring 93 (Plate 137) to this 
lamp. Its duties are two-fold: (1) It brings the 
levers 59 and 60, clutch rod weight 78-a, clutch rod 
78-b and clutch 44 into such a position that the car- 
bon by its own weight is dropped down until it comes 
in contact with the point of the electrode. (2) It pre- 
vents solenoid 65 from pulling the iron armature or mag- 
net down far enough to separate the carbons to such 
an extent as to break the circuit and cause the light to 
go out. 

The iron armature or magnet is. connected to the 
magnet yoke 90, which in turn is connected* to levers 59 
and 60, clutch rod weight 78-a, clutch rod 78-b and clutch 
44 in such a manner that a downward movement of mag- 
net 64 would raise the clutch weight, clutch rod and the 
point of the clutch, moving the carbon away from the 
copper electrode and establishing the arc and light. The 
regulating spring 93 might be termed a governor to the 
action of the solenoid. This is one of the duties it per- 
forms, as the spring is secured to the opposite end of 



THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 321 

lever 60 from that to which the magnet is connected and 
pulls. 

The volume of light is dependent largely upon the 
regulation of the tension spring. Track conditions and 
the jar and vibration of the locomotive exert a marked 
influence upon this spring and incidentally upon the light. 
Where track conditions are poor, this spring should be 
run as loose as possible without causing the light to go 
out when the locomotive is in motion. If the tension of 
this spring is too weak, when the engine is brought to a 
stop, and the jar and vibration are no longer present to 
assist the weak spring to pull against the stronger mag- 
netic influence of the solenoid which is pulling down on 
the levers and up on the carbon, the solenoid will separate 
the carbon points so far that the current can no longer 
flow across the intervening air space and the circuit will 
be broken. The instant the circuit is broken, the strength 
of the solenoid is dissipated and the adjusting spring 93 
brings the levers down in such a position that the carbon 
can again drop to the electrode. When the carbon comes 
in contact with the electrode, the circuit is again estab- 
lished and the light will come up, only to go out almost 
as quickly as it appeared, for the carbon will again be 
drawn so far away from the electrode that the circuit 
will again be broken. This process will be repeated un- 
til the locomotive is again in motion, or the tension of 
the regulating spring is increased. 

If the tension of the regulating spring is too strong, 
the solenoid cannot exert sufficient pull on the levers to 
overcome the pull of the spring and separate the carbon 
so that an arc can be formed. Or, the spring may be 
so adjusted that when the locomotive is at rest, the light 
will burn brightly, but when the speed of the engine 
reaches a certain point, the light becomes dim and will 
go almost if not entirely out. This action is due to 



$22 THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 

the fact that the high speed of the locomotive increases 
its vibration, which tends to give the regulating spring 
greater tension, or pull, against the action of the sole- 
noid, and causes the clutch to relax its hold on the car- 
bon, which will then drop downward. The moment the 
speed is reduced, however, the light will again come up 
to a satisfactory brilliance, for the pull of the regulating 
spring will not be so great, and the magnet will be strong 
enough to hold the levers down and the carbon up. 

The tension or adjustment of the regulating spring is 
correct when it is adjusted as loosely as possible with- 
out allowing the light to go out when the locomotive is 
at rest. In other words, the spring should be so adjust- 
ed that the light will flicker or flash a little when the 
locomotive is at a standstill. All the light possible from 
a given speed of the armature is then being secured, and 
when the engine is in motion the light will be bright and 
steady. When spring 93 is once properly adjusted, which 
is easily and quickly done, there is never any occasion 
for changing the adjustment. If the lamp fails at any 
time, the trouble will not be found in the spring. 

Top Clutch Spring. A small spring 92 is con- 
cealed within a recess of the top carbon holder 300. The 
duty of this spring is to hold the heel of clutch 44 down, 
which it accomplishes with the aid of clutch foot 102 and 
clutch foot rod 102A, and renders it possible for the clutch 
to grip and raise the carbon from the point of the copper 
electrode and so maintain the arc. If the tension of this 
spring is too w r eak, when the locomotive attains a high 
speed, this spring will be unable to hold the heel of clutch 
44 down in position, and it will be jarred up, releasing 
the carbon, as the magnet yoke 90 will travel downward 
and strike the small lug on lamp column 51^2. The mag- 
net will then be unable to keep the point of the clutch 
higher than its heel, the carbon will fall to the electrode 



THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 323 

and the light will go out. In this case, however, the 
circuit would not be broken. 

The strength of the solenoid will be greater for the 
reason that there is a greater amount of current cir- 
culating in the coils, since there is no resistance offered 
to the flow of current at the lamp. As resistance is nec- 
essary to the production of the arc and light, neither 
will be produced, as the magnet will still be pulling down 
on the levers, which in turn cannot release the clutch 
so that it can grip and raise the carbon. When the speed 
of the locomotive is reduced, this little spring will force 
the heel of the clutch down a short distance, when the 
clutch will hold the carbon against the point of the elec- 
trode until the current is shut off, when the levers will 
adjust themselves to a normal position. If the mechan- 
ism acts in the manner described, the steam should be 
shut off from the turbine wheel until the proper adjust- 
ment can be made, or damage may result. If the equip- 
ment is operated for any length of time with a weak 
spring and in the manner just described, the coils will 
become heated, the insulation will become charred and 
useless, and the result will be a burned out armature or 
field coil. 

This trouble can be prevented by the exercise of a 
little care and forethought on the part of the engineman. 
The carbons should burn between eight and nine hours, 
and if they feed too freely it will be caused by the weak- 
ness of spring 92-a, or by the edges of the clutch becom- 
ing worn smooth and round, when they should be sharp. 
Either of these defects will produce the conditions de- 
scribed, and they can easily be prevented, as an inspec- 
tion made once in six months, or even once a year, will 
prevent them. A very large percentage of electric head- 
light failures is due to carelessness in trimming the lamp 
and in putting in new carbons. 



324 THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 

A headlight failure sometimes occurs, when the speed 
of the locomotive is reduced or it is brought to a stop. 
At such times the engineman may have opened the door 
of the headlight and jarred the light with his hand, 
whereupon the light instantly comes up, giving the im- 
pression that the defect had been remedied, which it had 
been temporarily. In jarring the lamp, the carbon had 
been jarred down through the clutch to the point of the 
electrode, re-establishing the circuit, which was just what 
the locomotive did when in motion. There is no assur- 
ance, however, that, when the magnet becomes weak 
enough to release the clutch again, it will not catch or 
hang up in the clutch as before. When an arc is formed 
and the carbon burns away, the greater the length of the 
arc, the less current passes from the carbon to the elec- 
trode, and the corresponding amount circulating in the 
solenoid tends to weaken the magnetic pull on the levers 
and clutch, which holds the carbon. When the arc at- 
tains a certain length the current in the solenoid becomes 
weak enough to release the levers and .clutch, and the 
carbon feeds down or falls by its own weight. 

Carbons. Carbons are molded or forced and some- 
times they are not absolutely round or true, although 
they are supposed to be tested before leaving the factory, 
by being passed through a templet, so that they will fall 
or feed through the clutch in any position. If the carbon 
is rough, or irregular in shape, it will be held up in the 
clutch so far away from the electrode that the current 
cannot flow across the intervening space and the circuit 
will be broken. 

When new carbons are applied they should be passed 
through the clutch to determine whether they are true, 
or are likely to hang up in the clutch. This can be done 
by loosening thumbscrew 79, removing carbon holder 
300 from the lamp, just as is done when preparing to re- 



THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 325 

move the reflector and lamp from the cage, placing the 
carbon in the carbon clamp, securing the top holder by 
stud for thumb nut 79, then returning the carbon and 
clamp to the holder, releasing the carbon and noting 
whether it will fall entirely through the clutch by grav- 
ity. If the carbon will not pass through freely, it should 
be turned until a position is found in the clamp in 
which it will do so. 

The light failures referred to, which occur when the 
locomotive is being brought to a stop, are in nearly 
every case due to improper fitting of the carbon. How- 
ever, the same trouble will be experienced if the tension 
of spring 93 is too weak, but this seldom happens, as 
enginemen generally run this spring too tight rather than 
too loose. 

Small Contact Brush. There are small copper 
contact brushes secured to number 88 of the carbon 
clamp (Plate 137). The duties of this carbon clamp are 
to hold and guide the carbon down and transmit the cur- 
rent to the carbon by its contact with the guide bar, or 
upper carbon holder 100, through the medium of the 
small contact brushes. These contact brushes must 
not bear too heavily against holder 100, or the 
carbon will not feed down when the locomotive 
is at rest. It requires an imperfect contact to 
create an arc, and the carbon clamp cannot be made to 
fit closely enough to the guide bar of the upper carbon 
holder, and at the same time allow the carbon to feed 
down. Therefore, if the contact brushes do not touch 
upper holder 100 when the locomotive is in motion, there 
will be no constant and perfect contact between the car- 
bon clamp and the upper holder, the light will flicker and 
flash, and the guide bar to the upper carbon holder and 
the flange to the carbon clamp will be fused. 

Loose Binding Screws. If the equipment has 



326 THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 

been operating properly and giving a satisfactory light 
and 1 suddenly the light begins to flash, it will be found 
that one of the binding screws 68 is loose, and is not 
holding the wire firmly to the binding post. 

LIGHT FAILURES. 

No doubt many light failures have resulted in the 
past from the fusing of the copper electrode and hold- 
ers, and engines have been run over an entire divi- 
sion with a lantern hung in front, because the engine- 
man thought that there was no temporary remedy for 
the trouble. This fusing takes place very often while the 
engine is in the hands of the hostler, for there are few 
enginemen who do not recognize the cause of the trouble 
when a shaft of green light is thrown from the head- 
light instead of the usual white light, and who would not 
reduce the speed of the generator immediately by throt- 
tling the steam. 

When this difficulty is experienced it is not neces- 
sary to dispense with the headlight for the trip, for only 
the lower or negative point and its holder have been de- 
stroyed. All that is necessary to put the lamp in service 
is to remove the damaged electrode holder from bottom 
clamp 53, and substitute an ordinary iron bolt, securing 
it in the clamp by tightening up screw 68, just as is done 
with the electrode holder. One end of the bolt should 
come as high as the center of the reflector, and the other 
end must not be allowed to come in contact with the 
base of the lamp. 

The fusing of the electrode and holder is caused by 
a high electromotive force or voltage, and this will also 
cause the improvised negative point to fuse if the speed 
of the armature is not controlled by throttling. How- 
ever, as copper fuses at 1,996 degrees Fahrenheit and 
iron at 2,786 degrees Fahrenheit, the iron bolt can with- 
stand a higher temperature than the copper electrode, al- 



THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 327 

though it is not as good a conductor of electric current 
as the copper. 

In an emergency of this kind a carbon can be used, 
by securing it to the bottom clamp as already explained. 
A bolt is preferable, however, as the lower carbon will 
be constantly burning away though only about half as 
fast as the upper one. As it is impossible to set the low- 
er carbon exactly under the top one, the arc will be con- 
stantly lowered in the reflector, sending the shaft of light 
upward so that it will not touch the track, and in a short 
time the lower carbon will burn down until the top one 
will drop past the lower carbon point, resulting in a light 
failure. If it is necessary to use a carbon for the nega- 
tive point, the lower carbon should be raised to the height 
of the center of the reflector about once each hour the 
light is in use, in order to derive full benefit from it. 

The point of the carbon must be set exactly over the 
point of the copper electrode in order to secure a good 
arc. The electrode and holder can be bent in any direc- 
tion necessary to cause them to line up properly with 
the carbon. The holder is of brass, which can easily be 
bent without danger of breakage. 

Shaping the Point of the Electrode. The copper 
electrode should be shaped up with about one-eighth 
of an inch surface on its point, for the reason that 
electricity spreads itself evenly over the surface of 
the conductor through which it is passing, and if there 
were a one-half inch point on the electrode a thin, flat 
arc would be produced, instead of the long one, as when 
the copper is pointed properly. 

CARE OF DYNAMO AND ENGINE. 

The dynamo and turbine are durable and the cost 
of maintenance is very small. There are but four 
parts , that can wear out, viz., the governor valves, 
the two bearings, and the commutator. The shaft 



328 THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 

is made of steel, which is hardened and then ground, 
and, if properly lubricated, the wear at the journals takes 
place in the boxes. The bushings can be easily and quick- 
ly removed and replaced when worn out, without re- 
moving the equipment from the locomotive. The com- 
mutator, if run without sparking, will last for several 
years, and if provided with the new style brush hold- 
ers with fixed tension, should wear indefinitely. 

A large percentage of the difficulties that are expe- 
rienced with the dynamo can be prevented by the exer- 
cise of care and forethought on the part of the engine- 
man. A general knowledge of the conditions met with 
in the operation of the dynamo will enable him to over- 
come nearly all of the troubles that may be experienced. 

When the light fails, the dynamo should not be run 
for any length of time, as great damage might result, 
such as the burning out of the armature or the field coils. 

CAU5ES OF AND REMEDIES FOR DEFECTS. 

The most common cause of trouble is short circuits in 
the wires ; consequently when an equipment is applied or 
rewired care should be exercised to see that the wires are 
protected. A short circuit does not literally mean that the 
current is passing over a shorter distance to return to 
the dynamo, but that it is passing through a path of less 
resistance. Short circuits sometimes occur in the cab 
wires and at other times in the main wires that lead to 
the lamp. They are brought about by the insulation 
wearing off and the exposed wires coming in contact 
with each other, either directly or through the medium 
of a bolt, hand railing or other conducting material. If 
the insulation is worn from one wire and the wire is al- 
lowed to come in contact with some metallic substance, 
there will be a leak or ground, but if the insulation is worn 
from both wires and they are brought in contact, a short 
circuit will result. When a short circuit is established 



THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 329 

it is easier for the current to pass through it and return 
to the dynamo, than to pass through the lamp where it 
would meet with resistance, which is essential in order 
to produce the arc or light. 

Sometimes one of the main wires will break or the 
carbon will stick in the clutch, and in either case the 
circuit will be broken. With the engine running at a high 
rate of speed, if it is impossible for the engineman to lo- 
cate the trouble immediately, in order to prevent further 
trouble he should shut off the supply of steam to the 
turbine and stop the dynamo. The trouble can usually be 
located at the next stopping point, and the light again 
put in service. 

If the time is limited at the next stopping point, the 
engineman should start the turbine engine with about 
the same throttle opening as when operating the lamp, 
and then pass to the dynamo and note whether it is run- 
ning rapidly and lightly, with little noise, or is running 
slowly, laboring heavily, and making a great deal of 
noise. If the former condition is noted, the wires are 
not connected up or are broken, and in any event there is 
an open circuit. To ascertain quickly where the trouble 
is, the dynamo should be tested by placing a carbon or 
piece of steel across the two binding posts 28 and 29 
(Plate 132). If there is no flash at these posts the 
trouble is in the dynamo, and it is unlikely that the en- 
gineman can make the necessary repairs. It may hap- 
pen, however, that one of the field connections is loose 
and if this is the case the trouble can be repaired by 
tightening the loose screw. 

If there is a flash when the carbon or steel is placed 
across the dynamo binding posts the dynamo is all right, 
and the break is further toward the lamp. The carbon 
should next be placed across the two binding posts at 
the lamp, and if no flash results, the trouble is between 



33 o THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 

the lamp and the dynamo, and is due to one of the wires 
being broken. To repair this, the insulation should be 
stripped from the ends of the broken wire, and the two 
naked ends securely twisted together. This connection 
should then be wrapped with any material that will in- 
sulate the wire. A handkerchief will answer the pur- 
pose. If a flash is produced at the lamp when the car- 
bon is placed across the binding posts, the trouble is in 
the lamp, where, upon investigation, it will be found that 
the carbon and copper electrode are not in contact. They 
may be separated by scale which has formed on the point 
of the electrode, the carbon may not be of sufficient length 
to touch the electrode, the carbon may be held up in the 
clutch by reason of its own imperfections and irregu- 
lar contour, or a scale may have formed around the elec- 
trode in such a manner as to insulate it from its holder. 
These causes suggest their own remedies. 

On the other hand, if the dynamo is running very 
slowly, laboring heavily and making a great deal of 
noise, it indicates a short circuit in the lighting system. 
To locate the trouble one of the main wires should be 
removed from the binding post at the dynamo; if the 
dynamo still runs slowly and there is a cab circuit, one 
of the cab wires should be disconnected. If the speed of 
the dynamo instantly increases, the trouble is in the cab 
circuit and the main wire should be returned to the bind- 
ing post, while the cab wires must remain disconnected 
until the engineman has time to locate the trouble. This 
will again put the headlight in service. If, however, when 
the cab wire is disconnected, the speed of the dynamo, 
does not increase, the trouble is probably caused by one 
or both of the governor valves of the turbine engine be- 
ing stuck partly, if not entirely shut. If one or both of 
the governor plungers are responsible for this failure and 
slow speed, there will be but a small amount of steam es- 



THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 331 

caping from the exhaust pipe of the turbine engine. If 
the trouble is not found in the engine, it is in the dynamo, 
in which event it will probably be necessary to finish the 
run without the use of the headlight. Dynamo defects 
can be repaired only at the shops. 

If the trouble is caused by the sticking of the gov- 
ernor plungers or valves, they can be released by tapping 
the outside of the casting with a hammer, or by removing 
the top plug in the engine casting and introducing a little 
coal oil or black oil at this point. When steam is again 
admitted to the turbine wheel, this oil will be blown 
against the face of the governor plungers, and may re- 
lease them by cutting away the scale which has caused 
them to stick. 

If the speed instantly increases when the wire is re- 
moved from the dynamo binding post, the trouble is not 
in the dynamo, engine, or cab circuit, but further toward 
the lamp, and the wire should be returned to its binding 
post. One of the wires should then be removed from its 
binding post at the lamp, and if the speed of the dynamo 
does not instantly increase, the short circuit will be found 
in the wires leading from the dynamo to the lamp. All 
that is necessary is to find the exposed wire and to wrap 
it with insulating material, thus forcing the current to 
pass through the lamp instead of following this short path 
to the dynamo. 

If, when the wire is removed from the lamp binding 
post, the speed of the dynamo instantly increases, the 
trouble is not between the dynamo and the lamp, but in 
the lamp itself, where it will probably be found that thumb 
nut 79 has not been tightened securely and has allowed 
the point of the carbon to pass the point of the copper 
electrode, or that the carbon is stuck fast in the clutch 
and against the electrode. In either case the trouble can 
be remedied by straightening up the carbon and tight- 



332 THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 

ening thumb nut 79, and also noting whether the car- 
bon will raise and fall freely through clutch 44 to the 
point of the electrode. 

A "short" can occur in insulation 96 at both top and 
bottom brackets, in insulation washer 97 at the binding 
posts, or in the insulation bushings around the binding 
posts, where the posts go through the lug on the lamp 
column. These insulations never give way, however, so 
that a short circuit will never occur at these points unless 
some workman has taken the lamp to pieces and failed 
to return all insulations when re-assembling the parts. 
All of the difficulties described can be avoided, if proper 
care is exercised when the wiring is done. 

FOCUS OF THE LAMP. 

The efficiency of an electric headlight equipment is 
dependent largely upon the focus of the lamp and the 
condition of the reflector. When the arc is formed, or, 
in other words, when the lamp is burning, the dynamo 
and lamp are performing their full duties. • 

The cage or case must be set level, and parallel with 
the boiler, and the reflector must be set so that its front 
edge or face is parallel with the front edge of the cage, 
in order that the light rays may be properly collected 
and thrown on the center of the track. 

To focus the light properly, the locomotive should 
be placed at one end of a level piece of track, not less 
than half a mile in length. The lamp is adjustable and 
can be moved in all directions, and it should be moved 
until the shaft of light is thrown upon the track in such 
a manner as to secure the best results. The light should 
be reflected in parallel rays, and in as small a space as 
possible. 

It is impossible to get the full volume of light if the 
lamp is not focused and the reflector is dirty. Even 
with the best and brightest of reflectors, a certain per- 



THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 333 

centage of the light rays is absorbed by the reflecting 
surface, and this absorption of light is greatly increased 
by a dirty or dim reflector. It is essential, therefore, 
that the reflector be kept clean and highly polished at 
all times in order to insure the best results. 

HOW TO FOCUS THE LAMP. 

- The most satisfactory method of focusing the lamp 
is on a straight piece of track, proceeding in the manner 
before described, as the cage does not always set straight 
and level on the arch, and the best angle for the shaft of 
light can be obtained by shifting the reflector. When 
this is impossible the lamp can be focused by measure- 
ment in the following manner : 

The engineman must first see that the reflector case 
sets straight and level on the arch of the locomotive and 
that the front edge of the reflector is parallel with the 
front edge of the case. The center of the top of the cop- 
per electrode must be placed in the center of the reflector 
and the measurements taken from the top of the electrode 
to the sides, top and bottom of the reflector. When the 
exact center has been found, the electrode should be low- 
ered one-eighth of an inch. 

If the reflector has a sixteen-inch' face and is eight 
inches deep, the copper electrode should be placed two 
and three-eighths inches from the back of the reflector. If 
the reflector has an eighteen-inch face and is nine inches 
deep, the electrode should be placed two and one-fourths 
inches from the back of the reflector, and if the reflector 
is eighteen-inch face and is twelve inches deep, the elec- 
trode must be placed one and three-fourths inches from 
the back of the reflector. 



334 THE ELECTRIC HEADLIGHT. 



GENERAL INFORMATION. 

The electric headlight equipment was designed to 
meet the requirements of severe locomotive practice, but 
it is not self-adjusting or automatic in its operation. It is 
simple and easily understood, however, aad if given a few 
moments of attention each day will give a satisfactory 
light. 

The commutator is the vital part of the machine and 
must be kept clean in order to insure good brushes, and 
the correct spring pressure must be maintained upon 
the brushes. 

In starting the dynamo the steam should be turned on 
slowly and the water of condensation allowed to pass out 
of the pipes and turbine. The speed of the turbine and 
armature should not exceed that necessary to produce a 
good light. 

There is no danger of receiving a severe or dangerous 
shock from the electric headlight apparatus, as the re- 
sistance of the human body is too great for the low volt- 
age employed to force a current through, and an engine- 
man need have no fear of handling the wires and the 
dynamo when the apparatus is in operation. 



335 

STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES 

OF THE 

AMERICAN RAILWAY ASSOCIATION 

REVISED EDITION. 
PART III. 



GENERAL RULES. 

A. Employes whose duties are prescribed by these 
rules must provide themselves with a copy. 

B. Employes must be conversant with and obey the 
rules and special instructions. If in doubt as to their 
meaning they must apply to proper authority for an ex- 
planation. 

C. Employes must pass the required examinations. 

D. Persons employed in any service on trains are 
subject to the rules and special instructions. 

E. Employes must render every assistance in their 
power in carrying out the rules and special instructions. 

F. Any violation of the rules or special instructions 
must be reported. 

G. The use of intoxicants by employes while on duty 
is prohibited. Their use, or the frequenting of places 
where they are sold, is sufficient cause for dismissal. 

H. The use of tobacco by employes while on duty 
in or about passenger stations, or on passenger cars, is 
prohibited. 

J. Employes on duty must wear the prescribed badge 
and uniform and be neat in appearance. 

K. Persons authorized to transact business at sta- 
tions or on trains must be orderly and avoid annoyance 
to patrons. 

L. In case of danger to the Company's property, em- 
ployes must unite to protect it. 



336 STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 



DEFINITIONS. 

Engine. — A locomotive propelled by any form of 
energy. 

Train. — An engine, or more than one engine, coupled, 
with or without cars, displaying markers. 

Regular Train. — A train authorized by a time-table 
schedule. 

Section. — -One of two or more trains running on the 
same schedule displaying signals or for which signals are 
displayed. 

Extra Train. — A train not authorized by a time-table 
schedule. It may be designated as — 

Extra — for any extra train, except work extra; 
Work extra — for work train extra. 

Superior Train. — A train having precedence over an- 
other train. 

Train of Superior Right. — A train given precedence 
by train order. 

Train of Superior Class. — A train given precedence 
by time-table. 

Train of Superior Direction. — A train given prece- 
dence in the direction specified in the time-table as be- 
tween trains of the same class. 
Note. — Superiority by direction is limited to single track. 

Time-Table. — The authority for the movement of reg- 
ular trains subject to the rules. It contains the classified 
schedules of trains with special instructions relating 
thereto. 

Schedule. — That part of a time-table which prescribes 
class, direction, number and movement for a regular 
train. 



STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 337 

Division. — That portion of a railway assigned to the 
supervision of a . 

Subdivision. — A part of a division so designated on 
the time-table. 

Main Track. — A track extending through yards and 
between stations, upon which trains are operated by time- 
table or train order, or the use of which is controlled by 
block signals. 

Single Track. — A main track upon which trains are 
operated in both directions. 

Double Track. — Two main tracks, upon one of which 
the current of traffic is in a specified direction, and upon 
the other in the opposite direction. 

Three (or more) Tracks. — Three (or more) main 
tracks, upon any of which the current of traffic may be 
in either specified direction. 

Current of Traffic. — The movement of trains on a 
main track, in one direction, specified by the rules. 

Station. — A place designated on the time-table by 
name, at which a train may stop for traffic ; or to enter 
or leave the main track ; or from which fixed signals are 
operated. 

Siding. — A track auxiliary to the main track for 
meeting or passing trains, limited to the distance between 
two adjoining telegraph stations. 

Fixed Signal. — A signal of fixed location indicating 
a condition affecting the movement of a train. 



Note to Definition of Fixed Signal. — The definition of 
a "Fixed Signal" covers such signals as slow boards, stop boards, 
yard limits, switch, train order, block, interlocking, semaphore, 
disk, ball or other means for indicating stop, caution or proceed. 



338 STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 

Yard. — A system of tracks within defined limits pro- 
vided for the making up of trains, storing of cars and 
other purposes, over which movements not authorized 
by time-table, or by train order, may be made, subject to 
prescribed signals and regulations. 

Yard Engine. — An engine assigned to yard service 
and working within yard limits. 

Pilot. — A person assigned to a train when the engine- 
man or conductor, or both, are not fully acquainted with 
the physical characteristics, or running rules of the road, 
or portion of the road, over which the train is to be 
moved. 



STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 339 

RULES FOR SINGLE TRACK. 

STANDARD TIME. 

1. Standard Time obtained from observa- 
tory will be telegraphed to all points from designated 
offices at , m. daily. 

2. Watches that have been examined and certified to 
by a designated inspector must be used by conductors, 

enginemen and . The certificate in prescribed 

form must be renewed and filed with every 



(Form of Certificate.) 

CERTIFICATE OF WATCH INSPECTOR. 

This is to certify that on 19 

the watch of 

employed as 

on the 

was examined by me. It is correct and reliable, and in 
my judgment will, with proper care, run within a variation 
of thirty seconds per week. 

Name of Maker 

Brand 

Number of Movement 

Open or Hunting Case 

Metal of Case 

Stem or Key Winding 

Signed, 

Inspector. 
Address 

3. Watches of conductors, enginemen and 

must be compared before starting on each trip with a 
clock designated as a Standard Clock. The time when 
watches are compared must be registered on a prescribed 
form. 



340 STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 



TIME-TABLES. 

4. Each Time-table, from the moment it takes ef- 
fect, supersedes the preceding Time-table, and its sched- 
ules take effect on any division (or subdivision) at the 
leaving time at their initial stations on such division (or 
subdivision). But when a schedule of the preceding 
Time-table corresponds in number, class, day of leaving, 
direction, and initial and terminal stations with a sched- 
ule of the new Time-table, a train authorized by the pre- 
ceding Time-table will retain its train orders and assume 
the schedule of the corresponding number of the new 
Time-table. 

Schedules on each division (or subdivision) date 
from their initial stations on such division (or sub- 
division). 

Not more than one schedule of the same number and 
day shall be in effect on any division (or subdivision). 

5. Not more than two times are given for a train 
at any station ; where one is given, it is, unless otherwise 
indicated, the leaving time ; where two, they are the ar- 
riving and the leaving time. 

Unless otherwise indicated, the time applies to the 
switch where an inferior train enters the siding; where 
there is no siding it applies to the place from which fixed 
signals are operated ; where there is neither siding nor 
fixed signal, it applies to the place where traffic is re- 
ceived or discharged. 

Schedule meeting or passing stations are indicated 
by figures in full-faced type. 

Both the arriving and leaving time of a train are in 
full-faced type when both are meeting or passing times, 
or when one or more trains are to meet or pass it be- 
tween those times. 

When trains are to be met or passed at a siding ex- 



STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 341 

tending between two adjoining stations, the time at each 
end of the siding will be shown in full-faced type. 

Where there are one or more trains to meet or pass 
a train between two times, or more than one train to 
meet a train at any station, attention is called to it by 



6. The following signs, when placed before the fig- 
ures of the schedule, indicate : 

" s " — regular stop ; 

" f " — flag stop to receive or discharge passengers or 
freight ; 

" ff " — stop for meals ; 
"L"— leave; 
- A "—arrive. 

SIGNAL RULES. 

7. Employes whose duties may require them to give 
signals, must provide themselves with the proper appli- 
ances, keep them in good order and ready for immedi- 
ate use! 

8. Flags of the prescribed color must be used by 
day, and lamps of the prescribed color by night. 

9. Night signals are to be displayed from sunset to 
sunrise. When weather or other conditions obscure day 
signals, night signals must be used in addition. 

VISIBLE SIGNALS. 

10. COLOR SIGNALS. 



Color. 


Indication. 


(a) Red. 


Stop. 


(b) . 


Proceed, and for other uses pre- 




scribed by the Rules. 


(c^ 


Proceed with caution, and for 
other uses prescribed by the 


\ L J 




Rules. 


(d) Green and white. 


Flag stop. See Rule 2& 


(e) Blue. 


See Rule 26. 



342 STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 

ii. A fusee on or near the track burning red must 
not be passed until burned out. When burning green it 
is a caution signal. 



12. 



HAND, FLAG AND LAMP SIGNALS. 



Manner of Using. 



Indication. 



(a) Swung across the track. 

(b) Raised and lowered verti- 
cally. 

(c) Swung vertically in a circle 
at half arm's length across the 
track when the train is stand- 
ing. 

(d) Swung vertically in a circle 
at arm's length across the 
track, when the train is run- 
ning. 

(e) Swung horizontally above 
the head, when the train is 
standing. 

(f) Held at arm's length above 
the head, when the train is 
standing. 



Stop. 

Proceed. 

Back. 

Train has parted. 

Apply air-brakes. 
Release air-brakes. 



13. Any object waved violently by anyone on or near 
the track is a signal to stop. 



14. 



AUDIBLE SIGNALS. 



ENGINE WHISTLE SIGNALS. 



Note.— The signals prescribed are illustrated by "o" for short 
sounds; " — — " for longer sounds. The sound of the whistle 
should be distinct, with intensity and duration proportionate to 
the distance signal is to be conveyed. 



STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 343 



Sound. 


Indication. 


(a) 


Stop. Apply brakes. 


(b) 


Release brakes. 


(c) OOO 


Flagman go back and protect 




rear of train. 


(d) 


Flagman return from west or 




south. 


(e) 


Flagman return from east or 





or north. 


(f) 


When running, train parted; to 




be repeated until answered by 




the signal prescribed by Rule 




12 (d). Answer to 12 (d). 


(g) 


Answer to any signal not other- 




wise provided for. 


(h) 000 


When train is standing, back. 




Answer to 12 (c) and 16 (c). 




When train is running, an- 


- 


swer to 16 (d). 


(j) 0000 


Call for signals. 


(k) 00 


To call the attention of yard en- 




gines, extra trains or trains of 




the same or inferior class or 




inferior right to signals dis- 




played for a following section. 


(1) 00 


Approaching public crossings at 




grade. 


(m^ 


Approaching stations, junctions 


v rn ; 




and railroad crossings at grade. 



A succession of short sounds of the whistle is an 
alarm for persons or cattle on the track. 

15. The explosion of one torpedo is a signal to stop; 
the explosion of two not more than 200 feet apart is a 
signal to reduce speed, and look out for a stop signal. 



344 STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 



l6. COMMUNICATING SIGNALS. 


Sound. 


Indication. 


(a) Two. 


When train is standing, start. 


(b) Two. 


When train is running, stop at 




once. 


(c) Three. 


When train is standing, back the 




train. 


(d) Three. 


When train is running, stop at 




next station. 


(e) Four. 


When train is standing, apply or 




release air-brakes. 


(f) Four. 


When train is running, reduce 




speed. 


(g) Five. 


When train is standing, call in 




flagman. 


(h) Five. 


When train is running, increase 




speed. 



TRAIN SIGNALS. 

17. The headlight will be displayed to the front of 
every train by night, but must be concealed when a train 
turns out to meet another and has stopped clear of main 
track, or is standing to meet trains at the end of double 
track or at junctions. 

18. Yard engines will display the headlight to the 
front and rear by night. When not provided with a 
headlight at the rear, two white lights must be displayed. 
Yard engines will not display markers. 

19. The following signals will be displayed, one on 
each side of the rear of every train, as markers, to indi- 
cate the rear of the train : By day, green flags ; by night, 
green lights to the front and side and red lights to the 
rear; except when the train is clear of the main track, 
when green lights must be displayed to the front, side 
and rear. 

20. All sections except the last will display two green 



STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 345 

flags, and, in addition, two green lights by night, in the 
places provided for that purpose on the front of the 
engine. 

21. Extra trains will display two white flags and, 
in addition, two white lights by night, in the places pro- 
vided for that purpose on the front of the engine. 

22. When two or more engines are coupled, the 
leading engine only shall display the signals as prescribed 
by Rules 20 and 21. 

23. One flag or light displayed where in Rules 19, 
20 and 21 two are prescribed will indicate the same as 
two, but the proper display of all train signals is required. 

24. When cars are pushed by an engine (except 
when shifting or making up trains in yards) a white light 
must be displayed on the front of the leading car by night. 

25. Each car on a passenger train must be connected 
with the engine by a communicating signal appliance. 

26. A blue flag by day and a blue light by night, dis- 
played at one or both ends of an engine, car or train, indi- 
cates that workmen are under or about it; when thus 
protected it must not be coupled to or moved. Work- 
men will display the blue signals and the same workmen 
are alone authorized to remove them. Other cars must 
not be placed on the same track so as to intercept the view 
of the blue signals, without first notifying the workmen. 

USE OF SIGNALS. 

27. A signal imperfectly displayed, or the absence 
of a signal at a place where a signal is usually shown, 
must be regarded as a stop signal, and the fact reported 
to the . 

28. A combined green and white signal is to be used 
to stop a train' only at the flag stations indicated on its 
schedule. When it is necessary to stop a train at a point 
that is not a flag station on its schedule, a red signal must 
be used. 



346 STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 

29. When a signal (except a fixed signal) is given to 
stop a train, it must, unless otherwise provided, be ac- 
knowledged as prescribed by Rule 14 (g) or (h). 

30. The engine-bell must be rung when an engine 
is about to move. 

31. The engine-bell must be rung on approaching 
every public road crossing at grade, and until it is passed ; 
and the whistle must be sounded at all whistling-posts. 

32. The unnecessary use of either the whistle or the 
bell is prohibited. They will be used only as prescribed 
by rule or law, or to prevent accident. 

33. Watchmen stationed at public road and street 
crossings must use red signals only when necessary to 
stop trains. 

SUPERIORITY OF TRAINS. 

71. A train is superior to another train by right, 
class or direction. 

Right is conferred by train order; class and direc- 
tion by time-table. 

Right is superior to class or direction. 

Direction is superior as between trains of the same 
class. 1 

72. Trains of the first class are superior to those of 
the second ; trains of the second class are superior to those 
of the third ; and so on. 

Trains in the direction specified by the Time-table are 
superior to trains of the same class in the opposite di- 
rection. 

73. Extra trains are inferior to regular trains. 

MOVEMENT OF TRAINS. 

82. Time-table schedules, unless fulfilled, are in 
effect for twelve hours after their time at each station. 

Regular trains twelve hours behind either their sched- 
ule arriving or leaving time at any station lose both right 



STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 347 

and schedule, and can thereafter proceed only as author- 
ized by train order. 

83. A train must not leave its initial station on any 
division (or subdivision), or a junction, or pass from 
double to single track, until it has been ascertained 
whether all trains due, which are superior, or of the same 
class, have arrived or left. 

84. A train must not start until the proper signal 
is given. 

85. When a train of one schedule is on the time of 
another schedule of the same class in the same direction, 
it will proceed on its own schedule. 

Trains of one schedule may pass trains of another 
schedule of the same class, and extras may pass and run 
ahead of extras. 

86. An inferior train must clear the time of a supe- 
rior train, in the same direction, not less than five min- 
utes ; but must be clear at the time a first-class train, in 
the same direction, is due to leave the next station in the 
rear where time is shown. 

87. An inferior train must keep out of the way of 
opposing superior trains and, failing to clear the main 
track by the time required by rule, must be protected as 
prescribed by Rule 99. 

Extra trains must clear the time of regular trains 

minutes unless otherwise provided, and will be 

governed by train orders with respect to opposing extra 
trains. 

88. At meeting points between trains of the same 
class, the inferior train must clear the main track before 
the leaving time of the superior train. 

At meeting points between extra trains, the train in 
the inferior time-table direction must take the siding un- 
less otherwise provided. 

Trains must pull into the siding when practicable; if 



348 STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 

necessary to back in, the train must first be protected as 
prescribed by Rule 99, unless otherwise provided. 

89. At meeting points between trains of different 
classes the inferior train must take the siding and clear 
the superior train at least five minutes, and must pull into 
the siding when practicable. If necessary to back in, 
the train must first be protected as prescribed by Rule 99, 
unless otherwise provided. 

90. Trains must stop at schedule meeting stations, 
if the train to be met is of the same class, unless the 
switch is right and the track clear. 

When the expected train of the same class is not 
found at the schedule meeting station, the superior train 
must approach all sidings prepared to stop, until the ex- 
pected train is met. 

Trains must stop clear of the switch used by the train 
to be met in going on the siding. 

91. Unless some form of block signals is used, trains 
in the same direction must keep at least five minutes apart, 
except in closing up at stations. 

92. A train must not arrive at a station in advance 
of its schedule arriving time. 

A train must not leave a station in advance of its 
schedule leaving time. 

93. Within yard limits the main track may be used, 
protecting against class trains. 

class and extra trains must move within 

yard limits prepared to stop unless the main track is seen 
or known to be clear. 

94. A train which overtakes another train so dis- 
abled that it cannot proceed will pass it, if practicable, 
and if necessary will assume the schedule and take the 
train orders of the disabled train, proceed to the next 

open telegraph office, and there report to the . 

The disabled train will assume the right or schedule and 



STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 349 

take the train orders of the last train with which it has N 
exchanged, and will, when able, proceed to and report 
from the next open telegraph office. 

When a train, unable to proceed against the right or 
schedule of an opposing train, is overtaken between tele- 
graph stations by an inferior train or a train of the same 
class having right or schedule which permits it to pro- 
ceed, the delayed train may, after proper consultation 
with the following train, precede it to the next tele- 
graph station, where it must report to . When 

opposing trains are met under these circumstances, it 
must be fully explained to them by the leading train that 
the expected train is following. 

95. Two or more sections may be run on the same 
schedule. 

Each section has equal time-table authority. 
A train must not display signals for a following sec- 
tion without orders from the . 

96. When signals displayed for a section are taken 
down at any point before that section arrives, the con- 
ductor will, if there be no other provision, arrange in 
writing with the operator, or if there be no operator, with 
the switchtender, or in the absence of both, with a flag- 
man left there for that purpose, to notify all opposing 
inferior trains or trains of the same class leaving such 
point, that the section for which signals were displayed 
has not arrived. 

97. Extra trains must not be run without orders 
from the . 

98. Trains must approach the end of double track, 
junctions, railroad crossings at grade, and drawbridges, 
prepared to stop, unless the switches and signals are right 
and the track is clear. Where required by law trains 
must stop. 

99. When a train stops or is delayed under circum- 



350 STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 

stances in which it may be overtaken by another train, 
the flagman must go back immediately, with stop signals, 
a sufficient distance to insure full protection. When re- 
called he may return to his train, first placing two tor- 
pedoes on the rail when the conditions require it. 

The front of a train must be protected in the same 
way, when necessary, by the . 

ioo. When the flagman goes back to protect the rear 

of the train, the must, in the case of passenger 

trains, and the next brakeman, in the case of other trains, 
take his place on the train. 

101. If a train should part while in motion, trainmen 
must, if possible, prevent damage to the detached por- 
tions. The signals prescribed by Rules 12 (d) and 14 
(i) must be given. 

The detached portion must not be moved or passed 
until the front portion comes back. 

102. When cars are pushed by an engine (except 
when shifting and making up trains in yards) a flagman 
must take a conspicuous position on the front of the 
leading car. 

103. Messages or orders respecting the movement 
of trains or the condition of track or bridges must be 
in writing. 

104. Switches must be left in proper position after 
having been used. Conductors are responsible for the 
position of the switches used by them and their trainmen, 
except where switchtenders are stationed. 

A switch must not be. left open for a following train 
unless in charge of a trainman of such, train. 

105. Both conductors and enginemen are responsible 
for the safety of their trains and, under conditions not 
provided for by the rules, must take every precaution 
for their protection. 

106. In all cases of doubt or uncertainty the safe 
course must be taken and no risks run. 



STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 351 

SINGLE TRACK. 

RULES FOR MOVEMENT BY TRAIN 
ORDERS. 

201. For movements not provided for by Time-table, 
train orders will be issued by authority and over the sig- 
nature of the . They must contain neither in- 
formation nor instructions not essential to such move- 
ments. 

They must be brief and clear ; in the prescribed forms 
when applicable ; and without erasure, alteration or inter- 
lineation. 

202. Each train order must be given in the same 
words to all persons or trains addressed. 

203. Train orders will be numbered consecutively 
each day, beginning with No. at midnight. 

204. Train orders must be addressed to those who 
are to execute them, naming the place at which each is 
to receive his copy. Those for a train must be addressed 
to the conductor and engineman, and also to anyone who 
acts as its pilot. A copy for each person addressed must 
be supplied by the operator. 

Orders addressed to operators restricting the move- 
ment of trains must be respected by conductors and en- 
ginemen the same as if addressed to them. 

205. Each train order must be written in full in a 

book provided for the purpose at the office of the ; 

and with it recorded the names of those who have signed 
for the order ; the time and the signals which show when 
and from what offices the order was repeated and the 
responses transmitted; and the train dispatcher's initials. 
These records must be made at once, and never from 
memory or memoranda. 

206. Regular trains will be designated in train orders 
by their numbers, as "No. 10" or "2d No. 10," adding en- 



352 STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 

gine numbers if desired. Extra trains will be designated 
by engine numbers, and the direction as "Extra 798 
'East' or 'West.' " Other numbers and time will be stated 
in figures only. 

207. To transmit a train order, the signal "31" or 
the signal "19" followed by the direction must be given 
to each office addressed, the number of copies being 
stated, if more or less than three — thus, "31 West copy 
5," or "19 East copy 2." 

208 ( A) . A train order to be sent to two or more of- 
fices must be transmitted simultaneously to as many of 
them as practicable. The several addresses must be in 
the order of superiority of trains, each office taking its 
proper address. When not sent simultaneously to all, the 
order must be sent first to the superior train. 

208 (B). A train order to be sent to two or more 
offices must be transmitted simultaneously to as many of 
them as practicable. 

The several addresses must be in the order of supe- 
riority of trains and when practicable must include the 
operator at the meeting or waiting point, each office tak- 
ing its proper address. 

When not sent simultaneously to all, the order must 
be sent first to the superior train. 

Copies of the order addressed to the operator at the 
meeting or waiting point must be delivered to' all trains 
affected until all have arrived from one direction. 

209. Operators receiving train orders must write 
them in manifold during transmission and if they cannot 
at one writing make the requisite number of copies, must 
trace others from one of the copies first made. 

210. When a "31" train order has been transmitted, 
operators must (unless otherwise directed) repeat it at 
once from the manifold copy in the succession in which 
the several offices have been addressed, and then write 



STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 353 

the time of repetition on the order. Each operator re- 
ceiving the order should observe whether the others 
repeat correctly. 

Those to whom the order is addressed, except engine- 
men, must then sign it, and the operator will send their 
signatures preceded by the number of the order to the 

. The response "complete," and the time, with 

the initials of the , will then be given by the 

train dispatcher. Each operator receiving this response 
will then write on each copy the word "complete," the 
time, and his last name in full, and then deliver a copy 
to each person addressed, except enginemen. The copy 
for each engineman must be delivered to him personally 
by the conductor. 

ail. When a "19" train order has been transmitted, 
operators must (unless otherwise directed) repeat it at 
once from the manifold copy, in the succession in which 
the several offices have been addressed. Each operator 
receiving the order should observe whether the others 
repeat correctly. When the order has been repeated 
correctly by an operator, the response "complete," and 

the time, with the initials of the , will be given 

by the train dispatcher. The operator receiving this re- 
sponse will then write on each copy the word "complete," 
the time, and his last name in full, and personally deliver 
a copy to each person addressed without taking his sig- 
nature. But when delivery to engineman will take the 
operator from the immediate vicinity of his office, the 
engineman's copy will be delivered by trainmen. 

When a "19" train order restricting the superiority 
of a train is issued for it at the point where such supe- 
riority is restricted, the train must be brought to a stop 
before delivery of the order. 

212. A train order may, when so directed by the 
train dispatcher, be acknowledged without repeating, by 



354 STANDARD CODE OF TRAI NRULES. 

the operator responding: "X; (Number of Train Order) 
to- (Train Number) t " with the operator's initials and 
office signal. The operator must then write on the order 
his initials and the time. 

213. "Complete" must not be given to a train order 
for delivery to an inferior train until the order has been 
repeated or the "X" response sent by the operator who 
receives the order for the superior train. 

214. When a train order has been repeated or "X" 
response sent, and before "complete" has been given, the 
order must be treated as a holding order for the train 
addressed, but must not be otherwise acted on until 
"complete" has been given. 

If the line fail before an office has repeated an order 
or has sent the "X" response, the order at that office is 
of no effect and must be there treated as if it had not 
been sent. 

215. The operator who receives and delivers a train 
order must preserve the lowest copy. 

216. For train orders delivered by the train dispatch- 
er the requirements asto the record and delivery are the 
same as at other offices. 

217. A train order to be delivered to a train at a 
point not a telegraph station, or at one at which the tele- 
graph offilce is closed, must be addressed to — 

"C. and E ( at ), care of /' 

and forwarded and delivered by the conductor or other 
person in whose care it is addressed. When form 31 is 
used "complete" will be given upon the signature of the 
person by whom the order is to be delivered, who must 
be supplied with copies for the conductor and engineman 
addressed, and a copy upon which he shall take their sig- 
natures. This copy he must deliver to the first operator 
accessible, who must preserve it and at once transmit 



STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 355 

the signatures of the conductor and engineman to the 
train dispatcher. 

Orders so delivered must be acted on as if "complete" 
had been given in the usual way. 

For orders which are sent, in the manner herein pro- 
vided, to a train, the superiority of which is thereby re- 
stricted, "complete" must not be given to an inferior train 
until the signatures of the conductor and engineman of 
the superior train have been sent to the . 

218. When a train is named in a train order by its 
schedule number alone, all sections of that schedule are 
included, and each must have copies delivered to it. 

219. Unless otherwise directed, an operator must not 
repeat or give the "X" response to a train order for a 
train which has been cleared or of which the engine has 
passed his train order signal until he has obtained the 
signatures of the conductor and engineman to the order. 

220. Train orders once in effect continue so until 
fulfilled, superseded or annulled. Any part of an order 
specifying a particular movement may be either super- 
seded or annulled. 

Orders held by or issued for or any part of an order 
relating to a regular train become void when such train 
loses both right and schedule as prescribed by Rules 4 
and 82, or is annulled. 

221 (A). A fixed signal must be used at each train 
order office, which shall indicate "stop" when there is an 
operator on duty, except when changed to "proceed" to 
allow a train to pass after getting train orders, or for 
which there are no orders. A train must not pass the 
signal while "stop" is indicated. The signal must be re- 
turned to "stop" as soon as a train has passed. It must 
be fastened at "proceed" only when no operator is on 
duty. 

Operators must have the proper appliances for hand 



356 STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 

signaling ready for immediate use if the fixed signal 
should fail to work properly. If a signal is not displayed 
at a night office, trains which have not been notified must 
stop and ascertain the cause, and report the facts to the 

from the next open telegraph office. 

Where the semaphore is used, the arm indicates "stop" 
when horizontal and "proceed" when in an inclined posi- 
tion. 

221 (B). A fixed signal must be used at each train- 
order office, which shall indicate "stop" when trains are 
to be stopped for train orders. When there are no orders 
the signal must indicate "proceed." 

When an operator receives the signal "31," or "19," 
followed by the direction, he must immediately display the 
"stop signal" for the direction indicated and then reply 
"stop displayed," adding the direction; and until the or- 
ders have been delivered or annulled the signal must not 
be restored to "proceed." While "stop" is indicated 
trains must not proceed without a clearance card (Form 

(A)). 

Operators must have the proper appliances for hand 

signaling ready for immediate use if the fixed signal 
should fail to work properly. If a signal is not displayed 
at a night office, trains which have not been notified must 
stop and ascertain the cause, and report the facts to the 

from the next open telegraph office. 

Where the semaphore is used, the arm indicates "stop" 
when horizontal and "proceed" when in an inclined posi- 
tion. 

222. Operators will promptly record and report to 

the the time of departure of all trains and the 

direction of extra trains. They will record the time of 
arrival of trains and report it when so directed. 

223. The following signs and abbreviations may be 
used: 



STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 357 



Initials for signature of the 



Such office and other signals as are arranged by the 



C & E — for Conductor and Engineman. 

X — Train will be held until order is made "complete." 

Com — for Complete. 

O S — Train Report. 

No — for Number. 

Eng — for Engine. 

Sec — for Section." 

Psgr — for Passenger. 

Frt — for Freight. 

Mins — for Minutes. 

Jet — for Junction. 

Dispr — for Train Dispatcher. 

Opr — for Operator. 

31 or 19 — to clear the line for Train Orders, and for 

Operators to ask for Train Orders. 
S D— for "Stop Displayed." 

The usual abbreviations for the names of the months 
and stations. 



358 STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 

SINGLE TRACK. 

FORMS OF TRAIN ORDERS. 

Form A. Fixing Meeting Points for Opposing Trains. 

(i.) meet at . 

(2.) meet at 

at (and so on.) 

EXAMPLES. 

(1.) No 1 meet No 2 at "B." 

No 3 meet 2d No 4 at "B." 

No 5 meet Extra 95 east at "B. ,} 

Extra 652 north meet Extra 231 south at "B." 

(2.) No 2 and 2d No 4 meet Nos 1 and 3 at "C" and 

No 1 meet No 2 at "B '" 2nd No 4 at "C" and Extra 
95 east at "D." 
Trains receiving, these orders will run with respect to 

each other to the designated points and there meet in the 

manner provided by the Rules. 

Form B. Directing a Train to Pass or Run Ahead of 
Another Train. 

(1.) pass at . 

(2.). pass when overtaken. 

^.) run ahead of to 



(4.) run ahead of un- 
til overtaken. 

(5.) pass at and run 

ahead of to . 

EXAMPLES. 
(1.) No 1 pass No 3 at "K." 
(2.) No 6 pass No 4 when overtaken. 
(3.) Extra 594 east run ahead of No 6 "M" to "B." 
(4.) Extra 95 west run ahead of No 3 "B" until overtaken. 
(5.) No 1 pass No 3 at "K" and run ahead of No 7 "M" 
to "Z." 

When, under (1), a train is to pass another, both 
trains will run according to rule to the designated point 
and there arrange for the rear train to pass promptly. 



STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 359 

Under (2), both trains will run according to rule until 
the second-named train is overtaken and then arrange for 
the rear train to pass promptly. 

Under (3), the second-named train must not exceed 
the speed of the first-named train between the points 
designated. 

Under (4), the first-named train will run ahead of 
the second-named train from the designated station until 
overtaken, and then arrange for the rear train to pass 
promptly. 

When an inferior train receives an order to pass a 
superior train, right is conferred to run ahead of the 
train passed from the designated point. 

Form C. Giving Right to a Train Over An Opposing 

Train. 



has right over to 



EXAMPLES. 

(1.) No I has right over No 2 "G" to "X." 

(2.) Extra 37 east has right over No 3 "F" to "A." 

This order gives right to the train first named over 
the other train between the points named. 

If the trains meet at either of the designated points, 
the first-named train must take the siding, unless the or- 
der otherwise prescribes. 

Under (1), if the second-named train reaches the 
point last named before the other arrives it may proceed, 
keeping clear of the opposing train as many minutes as 
such train was before required to clear it under the Rules. 

Under (2), the regular train must not go beyond the 
point last named until the extra train has arrived, unless 
directed by train order to do so. 



3 6o STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 

Form D. Giving Regular Trains the Right Over a 
Given Train. 

Omitted. (Not used.) 

Form E. Time Orders. , 

(i.) run late to 



(2.) run late to 

and late to , etc. 



(3.) wait at until for 



(4.) wait at until 

until 

until 



EXAMPLES. 

(1.) No 1 run 20 mins late "A" to "G." 

(2.) No 1 run 20 mins late "A" to "G" and 15 mins late 
"G" to "K" etc. 

(3.) No 1 wait at "H" until 10 10 a m for No 2. 

(4.) Nosl and 3 wait at "N" until 10 00 a m 
"P" until 10 30 a m 
"R" until 10 55 a m etc. 

(1) and (2) make the schedule time of the train 
named, between the stations mentioned, as much later as 
stated in the order, and any other train receiving the 
order is required to run with respect to this later time, as 
before required to run with respect to the regular sched- 
ule time. The time in the order should be such as can 
be easily added to the schedule time. 

Under (3), the train first named must not pass the 
designated point before the time given, unless the other 
train has arrived. The train last named is required to 
run with respect to the time specified, at the designated 
point or any intermediate station where schedule time 
is earlier than the time specified in the order, as before 
required to run with respect to the schedule time of the 
train first named. 



STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 361 

Under (4), the train (or trains) named must not pass 
the designated points before the time given. 

Other trains receiving the order are required to run 
with respect to the time specified at the designated points 
or any intermediate station where schedule time is earlier 
than the time specified in the order as before required to 
run with respect to the schedule time of the train (or 
trains) named. 

All of these examples may be used in connection with 
an extra train created by example (3) of Form G and 
the times at each point stated in that example have the 
same meaning as schedule times in the foregoing ex- 
amples. 

Form F. For Sections. 

(1.) display signals and run as 

to . 



(2.) run as to 



(3-) display signals to 

for . 

(6.) is withdrawn as at 



(7.) instead cf display signals 

and run as to . 

(8.) take down signals at — : . 



(9.) and reverse positions as 

and to . 



EXAMPLES. 



(1.) Eng 20 display signals and run as 1st No 1 

to "Z." 

(2.) Eng 25 run as 2d No 1 "A" to "Z." 
(3.) No 1 display signals "A" to "G" for Eng. 65. 
2d No 1 display signals "B" to "E" for Eng. 99. 

These examples may be modified as follows : 

(4.) Engs 20 25 and 99 run as 1st 2d and 3d No 1 "A 
to "Z." 



362 STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 

Example (i) is to be used when the number of the 
engine for which signals are displayed is unknown and 
is to be followed by example (2), both being single order 
examples. 

Under examples (2) and (3), the engine named will 
not display signals. 

Under example (4), the engine last named will not 
display signals. 

For changing sections: 

To add an intermediate section the following modifi- 
cation of example ( 1 ) will be used : 

(5.) Eng 85 display signals and run as 2d No 1 "N" to 
"Z." Following sections change numbers accordingly. 

Under (5), Engine 85 will display signals and run as 
directed and following sections will take the next higher 
number. 

To drop an intermediate section the following ex- 
ample will be used : 

(6.) Eng 85 is withdrawn as 2d No 1 at "H" Following 
sections change numbers accordingly. 

Under (6), Engine 85 will drop out at "H" and fol- 
lowing sections will take the next lower number. 

To substitute one engine for another on a section, the 

following will be used: 

(7.) Eng 18 instead of Eng 85 display signals and run as 
2d No 1 "R" to "Z." 

Under (7), Engine 85 will drop out at "R" and En- 
gine 18 will run as directed. 

If Engine 85 is last section the words "display sig- 
nals and" will be omitted. Following sections need not 
be addressed. 

To discontinue the display of signals the following 
example will be used: 

(8.) 2d No 1 take down signals at "D." 

Under example (8), 2d No. 1 will take down signals 



STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 363 

as directed and a following section must not proceed be- 
yond the point named. 

To pass one section by another, the following will be 
used: 

(9.) Engs 99 and 25 reverse positions as 2d and 3d No 1 

"H" to "zr 

Under (9), Engine 99 will run ahead of Engine 25 
"H" to "Z," and, if necessary, both engines will arrange 
signals accordingly. Following sections, if any, need not 
be addressed. 

The character of a train for which signals are dis- 
played may be stated. Each section affected by the order 
must have copies, and must arrange signals accordingly. 

To annul a section for which signals have been dis- 
played over a division or any part thereof, when no train 
is to follow the signals, Form K must be used. 

Form G. Extra Trains. 

(1.) Eng run extra to 

(2.) Eng run extra to 

and return to . 

EXAMPLES. 

(1.) Eng 99 run extra "A" to "F." 

(2.) Eng 99 run extra "A" to "F" and return to "C." 

Under (2), the extra must go to "F" before return- 
ing to "C." 

(3.) Eng run extra leaving on 



Leave 


as 


J.UUUW3 Willi llgllU UVC1 d.11 LldlllS. 


Leave 




. 


Arrive 




EXAMPLE. 


(3.) Eng 77 run extra, leaving "A" on Thursday Feb 17th, 
as follows, with right over all trains: 
Leave "A" U 30 pm 

" "C" 12 25 a m 

" "E" 1 47 am 
Arrive "F" 2 22am 



364 STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 

This order may be varied by specifying the kind of 
extra and the particular trains over which the extra shall 
or shall not have right. Trains over which the extra is 

thus given right must clear the time of the extra 

minutes. 

Form H. Work Extra. 

(1.) works until be- 
tween and . 

EXAMPLES. 
(1.) Eng 292 works 7 a m to 6 p m between "D" and "E." 
Under (1), the work extra must, whether standing 
or moving, protect itself against extras within the work- 
ing limits in both directions as prescribed by rule. The 
time of regular trains must be cleared. 
This may be modified by adding : 

(2.) Not protecting against (eastward) extras. 
(3.) Not protecting against extras. 

Under (2), the work extra will protect only against 
(westward) extras. The time of regular trains must be 
cleared. 

Under (3), protection against extras is not required. 
The time of regular trains must be cleared. 

When a work extra has been instructed by order not 
to protect against extra trains, and, afterward, it is de- 
sired to have it clear the track for (or protect itself after 
a certain hour against) a designated extra, an order may 
be given in the following form : 

(4.) Work Extra 292 clears {or protects against) Extra 
76 east between "D" and "E" after 2, 10 p m. 

Under (4), extra 76 east must not enter the working 
limits before 2:10 p. m., and will then run expecting to 
find the work extra clear of the main track (or protect- 
ing itself) as the order may require. 



STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 365 

To enable a work extra to work upon the time of a 

regular train, the following form will be used : 

(5.) Work Extra 292 protects against No 55 (or 

class trains) between "D" and "E" 

Under (5), the work extra may work upon the time 
of the train or trains mentioned in the order, and must 
protect itself against such train or trains, as prescribed 
by Rule. The regular train or trains receiving the order 
will run expecting to find the work extra protecting 
itself. 

When a work extra is to be given exclusive right over 

all trains the following form will be used : 

(6.) Work Extra 292 has right over all trains between 
"D" and "E" 7 p m to 12 night. 

This gives the work extra the exclusive right between 
the points . designated between the times named. 

Work extras must give way to all trains as promptly 
as practicable. 

Whenever extra trains are run over working limits, 
they must be given a copy of the order sent to the work 
extra. Should the working order instruct a work extra 
not to protect against extra trains in one or both direc- 
tions, extra trains must protect, as prescribed by Rule 
99, against the work extra ; if the order indicates that the 
work extra is protecting itself against other trains, they 
will run expecting to find the work extra protecting itself. 

The working limits should be as short as practicable; 
to be changed as the progress of the work may require. 

Form J. Holding Order. 
Hold . 

EXAMPLES. 

Hold No 2. 

Hold all (or — - — ward) trains. 

When a train has been so held it must not proceed 



3 66 STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 

until the order to hold is annulled, or an order given to 
the operator in the form: 



may go. 



These orders will be addressed to the operator and 
acknowledged in the usual manner, and will be delivered 
to conductors and enginemen of all trains affected. 

Form J will only be used when necessary to hold trains 
until orders can be given, or in case of emergency. 

Form K. Annulling a Schedule or a Section. 

of i s annulled to 



EXAMPLES. 

No 1 of Feb 29th is annulled "A" to "Z.\ 
2d No 5 of Feb 29th is annulled "E" to "G." 

The schedule or section annulled becomes void be- 
tween the points named and cannot be restored. 

Form L. Annulling an Order. 

Order No. is annulled. 

EXAMPLE. 

Order No 10 is annulled. 

If an order which is to be annulled has not been de- 
livered to a train, the annulling order will be addressed 
to the operator, who will destroy all copies of the order 
annulled but his own, and write on that : 

Annulled by Order No . 

An order which has been annulled must not be re- 
issued under its original number. 

Form M. Annulling Part of an Order. 

That part of Order No. reading 

is annulled. 

EXAMPLE. 

That part of Order No 10 reading No 1 meet No 2 at "S" 
is annulled. 



STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 367 

Form P. Superseding an Order or Part of an Order. 

This order will be given by adding to prescribed 
forms, the words "instead of ." 

(1.) meet at instead 

of . 

(2.) — has right over to 

instead of . 



(3.) display signals for 

to instead of . 

EXAMPLES. 
(1.) No 1 meet No 2 at "C" instead of "B." 
(2.) No 1 has right over No 2 "G" to "R" instead of "X." 
(3.) No 1 display signals for Eng 85 "A" to ' Z" instead 
of "G." 

An order which has been superseded must not be 
reissued under its original number. 



368 STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 

TRAIN RULES AND TRAIN ORDERS 
FOR DOUBLE TRACK, WHICH DIFFER 
IN LANGUAGE FROM THE CORRES- 
PONDING RULES OF THE RULES FOR 
SINGLE TRACK, OR ARE USED ONLY 
FOR DOUBLE TRACK. ALL OTHER 
RULES ARE THE SAME IN BOTH THE 
SINGLE AND DOUBLE TRACK CODES. 



TIME-TABLES. 

5. Not more than two times are given for a train at 
any station ; where one is given, it is, unless otherwise in- 
dicated, the leaving time ; where two, they are the arriv- 
ing and leaving time. 

Unless otherwise indicated, the time applies to the 
switch where an inferior train enters the siding; where 
there is no siding it applies to the place from which fixed 
signals are operated; where there is neither siding nor 
fixed signal, it applies to the place where traffic is re- 
ceived or discharged. 

Schedule passing stations are indicated by figures in 
full-faced type. 

Both the arriving and leaving time of a train are in 
full-faced type when both are passing times, or when one 
or more trains are to pass it between those times. 

When trains are to be passed at a siding extending be- 
tween two adjoining stations, the time at each end of the 
siding will be shown in full-faced type. 

When there are one or more trains to pass a train 
between two times, attention is called to it by . 



STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 369 

SIGNAL RULES. 

17. The headlight will be displayed to the front of 
every train by night, but must be concealed when a train 
is standing to meet trains at the end of double track or at 
junctions. 

19. The following signals will be displayed, one on 
each side of the rear of every train, as markers, to indicate 
the rear of the train: By day, green flags; by night, 
green lights to the front and side and red lights to the 
rear, except when the train is clear of the main track, 
when green lights must be displayed to the front, side 
and rear, and except when a train is turned out against 
the current of traffic, when green lights must be dis- 
played to the front and side, and to the rear, a green light 
toward the inside and a red light to the opposite side. 

SUPERIORITY OF TRAINS. 

71. A train is superior to another train by right or 
class. 

Right is conferred by train order ; class by time-table. 
Right is superior to class. 

72. Trains of the first class are superior to those of 
the second ; trains of the second class are superior to those 
of the third ; and so on. 

MOVEMENT OF TRAINS. 

83. A train must not leave its initial station on any 
division (or subdivision), or a junction, until it has been 
ascertained whether all superior trains due have left. 

85. When a train of one schedule is on the time of 
another schedule of the same class it will proceed on its 
own schedule. 

Trains of one schedule may pass trains of another 
schedule of the same class. 



370 STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 

A section may pass and run ahead of another section 
of the same schedule, first exchanging orders, signals and 
numbers with the section to be passed. Extras may pass 
and run ahead of extras. 

86. An inferior train must clear the time of a superior 
train not less than five minutes ; but must be clear at the 
time a first-class train in the same direction is due to leave 
the next station in the rear where time is shown. 

Extra trains must clear the time of regular trains 
minutes unless otherwise provided. 

91. Unless some form of block signals is used, trains 
must keep at least five minutes apart, except in closing up 
at stations. 

93. Within yard limits the main tracks may be used, 
protecting against class trains. 

class and extra trains must move within 

yard limits prepared to stop unless the main track is seen 
or known to be clear. 

94. A train which overtakes a superior train, so dis- 
abled that it cannot proceed will pass it, if practicable, and 
if necessary will assume the schedule and take the train or- 
ders of the disabled train, proceed to the next open tele- 
graph office, and there report to the . The dis- 
abled train will assume the schedule and take the train 
orders of the last train with which it has exchanged and 
will, when able, proceed to and report from the next open 
telegraph office. 

95. Two or more sections may be run on the same 
schedule. 

Each section has equal time-table authority. 

A train must not display signals for a following sec- 
tion, except as prescribed by Rule, without orders from 
the . 

97. Extra trains must not be run without orders 
from the . 



STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 371 

Work extras must move with the current of traffic 
unless otherwise directed. 

1 01. If a train should part while in motion trainmen 
must, if possible, prevent damage to the detached por- 
tions. The signals prescribed by Rules 12 (d) and 14 (f) 
must be given. 

The detached portion must not be moved or passed 
until the front portion comes back. 

The engineman and trainmen of the front portion 
must give the train-parted signal to trains running on the 
.opposite track. A train receiving this signal or being oth- 
erwise notified that a train on the opposite track has 
parted, must immediately reduce speed and proceed with 
caution until the separated train is passed. 

When a train is disabled so it may obstruct the oppo- 
site track, trains on that track must be stopped. 

151. Trains must keep to the , unless other- 
wise provided. 

152. When a train crosses over to or obstructs the 
other track, unless otherwise provided, it must first be 
protected as prescribed by rule in both directions on that 
track. 

153. Trains must use caution in passing a train re- 
ceiving or discharging passengers at a station, and must 
not pass between it and the platform at which the pas- 
sengers are being received or discharged. 



372 STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 

DOUBLE TRACK. 

FORMS OF TRAIN ORDERS. 

Form A. Fixing Meeting Points for Opposing Trains. 
Omitted. (Not applicable to Double Track.) 

Form B. Directing a Train to Pass or Run Ahead of 
Another Train. 

(i.) pass at . 

(2.) pass when overtaken. 

(3.) run ahead of to 



(4.) run ahead of un- 
til overtaken. 

(5.) pass at and run 

ahead of to — . 

EXAMPLES. 

(1.) No 1 pass No 3 at "K." 
(2.) No 6 pass No 4 when overtaken. 
(3.) Extra 594 east run ahead of No 6 "M" to "B" 
(4.) Extra 95 west run ahead of No 3 "B" until overtaken. 
(5.) No 1 pass No 3 at "K" and run ahead of No 7 "M" 
to "Z." 

When, under (1), a train is to pass another, both 
trains will run according to rule to the designated point 
and there arrange for the rear train to pass promptly. 

Under (2), both trains will run according to rule un- 
til the second-named train is overtaken and then arrange 
for the rear train to pass promptly. 

Under (3), the second-named train must not exceed 
the speed of the first-named train between the points 
designated. 

Note. — In the Code of Double Track Forms of Train Orders 
those marked "D," such as D-Form E, D-Form G, etc., either 
differ in language from the corresponding Forms (Form E, Form 
G, etc.) of the Forms of Train Orders for Single Track; or are 
Forms used only for Double Track, as D-Form R, etc. Forms 
having simple letters such as Form B, Form F, etc., are the same 
in both Single and Double Track Codes. 



STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 373 

Under (4), the first-named train will run ahead of the 
second-named train from the designated station until 
overtaken, and then arrange for the rear train to pass 
promptly. 

When an inferior train receives an order to pass a 
superior train, right is conferred to run ahead of the train 
passed from the designated point. 

Form C. Giving a Train the Right Over an Opposing 

Train. 

Omitted. (Not applicable to Double Track.) 

Form D. Giving Regular Trains the Right Over a 
Given Train. 

Omitted. (Not used.) 

D-Form E. Time Orders. 
(1.) run late to 



(2.) run late to 

and late to etc. 



(3.) wait at until . 

until . 

until . 

EXAMPLES. 

(1.) No 1 run 20 mins late "A" to "G." 

(2.) No 1 run 20 mins late "A" to "G" and 15 mins late 

"G" to "K " etc. 
(3) Nos 1 and 3 wait at "N" until 10 00 a m 
"P" until 10 30 a m 
"R" until 10 55 a m etc 

(1) and (2) make the schedule time of the train 
named, between the stations mentioned, as much later as 
stated in the order, and any other train receiving the or- 
der is required to run with respect to this later time, as 
before required to run with respect to the regular sched- 



374 STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 

ule time. The time in the order should be such as can 
be easily added to the schedule time. 

Under (3), the train (or trains) named must not pass 
the designated points before the time given. 

Other trains receiving the order are required to run 
with respect to the time specified at the designated points 
or any intermediate station where schedule time is earlier 
than the time specified in the order as before required to 
run with respect to the schedule time of the train (or 
trains) named. 

All of these examples may be used in connection with 
an extra train created by example (3) of Form G and 
the times at each point stated in that example have the 
same meaning as schedule times in the foregoing ex- 
amples. 

D-Form F. For Sections. 

(1.) display signals and run as 

to . 



(2.) run as to 



(3.) display signals to 

for . 

(6.) is withdrawn as at . 

(7.) instead of display signals 

and run as to . 

(8.) take down signals at . 

EXAMPLES. 
(1.) Eng 20 display signals and run as 1st No 1 "A" 

• << y » 

(2.) Eng 25 run as 2d No 1 "A" to "Z." 

(3.) No 1 display signals "A" to "G" for Eng 65. 

2nd No 1 display signals "B" to "E" for Eng 99. 

These examples may be modified as follows : 

(4.) Engs 20 25 and 99 run as 1st 2d and 3d No 1 "A" 
to "Z." 



STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 375 

Example (1) is to be used when the number of the 
engine for which signals are displayed is unknown and 
is to be followed by example (2), both being single order 
examples. 

Under examples (2) and (3), the engine named will 
not display signals. 

Under example (4), the engine last named will not 
display signals. 

For changing sections : 

To add an intermediate section the following modifi- 
cation of example (1) will be used: 

(5.) Eng 85 display signals and run as 2d No 1 "N" to 
"Z." Following sections change numbers accord- 
ingly. 

Under (5), Engine 85 will display signals and run as 
directed and following sections will take the next higher 
number. !i 

To drop an intermediate section the following ex- 
ample will be used : 

(6.) Eng 85 is zi-ithdrazun as 2d No 1 at "H" Following 
sections change numbers accordingly. 

Under (6), Engine 85 will drop out at "H" and fol- 
lowing sections will take the next lower number. 

To substitute one engine for another on a section, 
the following will be used : 

(7.) Eng 18 instead of Eng .85 display signals and run as 
2nd No 1 "R" to "Z." 

Under (7), Engine 85 will drop out at "R" and En- 
gine 18 will run as directed. 

If Engine 85 is last section the words "display sig- 
nals and" will be omitted. Following sections need not 
be addressed. 

To discontinue the display of signals the following 
example will be used : 

(8.) 2d No 1 take down signals at "D." 

Under example (8), 2d No. 1 will take down signals 



376 STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 

as directed and a following section must not proceed be- 
yond the point named. 

The character of a train for which signals are dis- 
played may be stated. Each section affected by the order 
must have copies, and must arrange signals accordingly. 

To annul a section for which signals have been dis- 
played over a division or any part thereof, when no train 
is to follow the signals, Form K must be used. 



Form G. Extra Trains. 



( i.) Eng run extra to . 

(2.) Eng run extra to 

and return to . 

EXAMPLES. 

(1.) Engine 99 run extra "A" to "F." 
(2.) Eng 99 run extra "A" to "F" and return to "C." 
Under (2), the extra must go to "F" before return- 
ing to "C." 

(3.) Eng run extra leaving on 



as follows with right over all trains : 



Leave ■ 
Leave ■ 
Arrive 



EXAMPLE. 
(3.) Eng 77 run extra leaving "A" on Thursday Feb 17 th, 
as follows, with right over all trains: 

Leave "A" 11 30 p m 

u <c£» 12 25 a m 

* "E" 1 47 a m 

Arrive "F" 2 22 a m 

This order may be varied by specifying the kind of 
extra and the particular trains over which the extra shall 
or shall not have right. Trains over which the extra is 

thus given right must clear the time of the extra 

minutes. 



STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 377 



D-Form H. Work Extra. 

Eng works on track to 

between and . 



EXAMPLE. 

Eng 292 works on eastward track (or both tracks) 7am 
to 6 p m between "D" and "E" 

Under (1), the work extra must, whether standing 
or moving, protect itself within the working limits against 
extras moving with the current of traffic on the track 
or tracks named, as prescribed by Rule 99. The time of 
regular trains must be cleared. 

This form may be modified by adding: 

(2.) Not protecting against extras. 

Under (2), protection against extra trains is not re- 
quired. The time of regular trains must be cleared. 

To enable a work extra to work upon the time of a 

regular train, the following form may be used: 

(3.) Work extra 292 protects against No 55 (or 

class trains) between "D" and "E." 

Under (3), the work extra may work upon the time 
of the train (or trains) mentioned in the order and must 
protect against such train (or trains) as prescribed by 
Rule 99. 

The regular train or trains receiving the order will 
run expecting to find the work extra protecting itself. 

When it is desired to move a train against the current 
of traffic over the working limits, provision must be made 
for the protection of such movement. 

When a work extra is to be given exclusive right over 
all trains, the following form will be used : 

(4.) Work extra has right over all trains 

on track between and 

m to m. 



378 STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 

EXAMPLE. 

(4.) Work extra 275 has right over all trains on eastward 
and zvestward tracks between "G" and "H" 7 p m to 12 night. 

This gives the work extra the exclusive right to the 
track (or tracks) mentioned between the points desig- 
nated between the times named. 

Work extras must give way to all trains as promptly 
as practicable. 

The working limits should be as short as practicable ; 
to be changed as the progress of the work may require. 

Form J. Holding Order. 

Hold . 

EXAMPLES. 

Hold No 2. 

Hold all (or zvard) trains. 

When a train has been so held it must not proceed un- 
til the order to hold is annulled, or an order given to the 
operator in the form : 

" may go." 

These orders will be addressed to the operator and 
acknowledged in the usual manner, and will be delivered 
to conductors and enginemen of all trains affected. 

Form J will only be used when necessary to hold 
trains until orders can be given, or in case of emergency. 

Form K. Annulling a Schedule or a Section. 

f i s annulled to 



EXAMPLES. 

No 1 of Feb 29th is annulled "A" to "Z" 
2d No 5 of Feb 29th is annulled "E" to "G." 

The schedule or section annulled becomes void be- 
tween the points named and cannot be restored. 



STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 379 

Form L. Annulling an Order. 

Order No. is annulled. 

EXAMPLE. 

Order No 10 is annulled. 

If an order which is to be annulled has not been de- 
livered to a train, the annulling order will be addressed to 
the operator, who will destroy all copies of the order an- 
nulled but his own, and write on that: 

Annulled by Order No. — . 

An order which has been annulled must not be re- 
issued under its original number. 

D-Form M. Annulling Part of an Order. 

That part of Order No. reading 

is annulled. 

EXAMPLE. 

That part of Order No 10 reading Extra 263 west pass No 1 
at "S" is annulled. 

D-Form P. Superseding an Order or a Part of an 

Order. 

This order will be given by adding to prescribed 
forms, the words "instead of ." 

(1.) pass at instead 

of . 

(2.) display signals for 

to instead of . 

EXAMPLES. 

(1.) No 1 pass No 3 at "C" instead of "B." 
(2.) No 1 display signals for Eng 85 "A" to "Z" in 
stead of "G." 

An order which has been superseded must not be re- 
issued under its original number. 



380 STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 

D-Form R. Providing for a Movement Against the 
Current of Traffic. 

— has right over opposing trains on 



track to . 

EXAMPLE. 

(1.) No 1 has right over opposing trains on No 2 (or 
eastward) track "C" to "F." 

A train must not be moved against the current of 
traffic until the track on which it is to run has been cleared 
of opposing trains. 

Under this order the designated train must use the 
track specified between the points named and has right 
over opposing trains on that track between those points. 
Opposing trains must not leave the point last named until 
the designated train arrives. 

An inferior train between the points named moving 
with the current of traffic in the same direction as the 
designated train must receive a copy of the order, and 
may then proceed on its schedule, or right. 

This order may be modified as follows : 

(2.) After arrives at 

has right over opposing trains on track 

to . 

EXAMPLE. 

After No 4 arrives at "C" No 1 has right over opposing 
trains on No 2 {or eastward) track "C" to "F." 

Under (2), the train to be moved against the current 

of traffic must not leave the first-named point until the 

arrival of the first-named train. 

D-Form S. Providing for the Use of a Section of 
Double Track as Single Track. 

track will be used as single track between 

and . If it is desired to limit the time 



for such use add (from until ). 



STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 381 

EXAMPLE. 

No 1 (or westward) track will be used as single track be- 
tween "F" and "G." 

Adding if desired: 

from 1 p m to 3 p m 

Under this order all trains must use the track speci- 
fied between the stations named and will be governed by- 
rules for single track. 

Trains running against the current of traffic on the 
track named must be clear of the track at the expiration 
of the time named, or protected as prescribed by Rule 99. 



RULES GOVERNING THE MOVEMENT 
OF TRAINS WITH THE CURRENT OF 
TRAFFIC ON DOUBLE TRACK BY 
MEANS OF BLOCK SIGNALS. 

D-251. On portions of the road so specified on the 
time-table, trains will run with the current of traffic by 
block signals whose indications will supersede time-table 
superiority. 

D-252. The movement of trains will be supervised 

by the , who will issue instructions to signalmen 

when required. 

D-253. A train having work to do which may detain 

it more than minutes, must obtain permission 

from the signalman at the last station at which there is 
a siding before entering the block in which work is to be 
done. The signalman must obtain authority to give this 
permission from the . 

D-254. Except as affected by these rules, all Block 
Signal and Train Rules remain in force. 



382 STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 

RULES GOVERNING THE MOVEMENT 
OF TRAINS AGAINST THE CURRENT 
OF TRAFFIC ON DOUBLE TRACK BY 
MEANS OF BLOCK SIGNALS. 

D-261. On portions of the road so specified on the 
time-table, trains will run against the current of traffic 
by block signals, whose indications will supersede time- 
table superiority and will take the place of train orders. 

D-262. The movement of trains will be supervised 
by the , who will issue instructions to signal- 
men. 

D-263. A train must not cross over, except as pro- 
vided in Rule D-261, without authority from the 



D-264. Except as affected by these rules, all Block 



Signals and Train Rules remain in force. 



RULES FOR THREE AND FOUR 
TRACKS. 

F-271. One of the main tracks will be designated 
as No. 1 ; additional tracks will be numbered therefrom, 
even numbers to the right, odd numbers to the left, when 
facing East or North. 

F-272. The use of these tracks, both as to the class 
and the current of traffic, will be designated on the time- 
table or by special instructions. 

F-273. On portions of the road so specified on the 
time-table trains will run with the current of traffic by 
block signals, whose indications will supersede time-table 
superiority. 

Note. — Roads operating under these Rules must provide 
proper signals to control the approach and movement of trains. 



STANDARD CODE OF TRAIN RULES. 383 

F-274. A train by night running with the current of 
traffic, on a high speed track, will display two red lights 
to the rear. 

A train by night running with the current of traffic, 
on a slow speed track, or a train by night using any 
track against the current of traffic, will display a green 
light to the rear on the side next to the high speed track 
in the direction of the current of traffic, and a red light 
on the opposite side. 

A train by night on a siding will display two green 
lights to the rear. 



F-275. 



ENGINE STEAM WHISTLE SIGNALS. 



Xote. — The signals prescribed are illustrated by "o" for short 

sounds; " " for longer sounds. The sound of the whistle 

should be distinct, with intensity and duration proportionate to 
the distance signal is to be conveyed. 



Sound. 



(a) 

(c) o 

(d) o 

(e) o 

(f) o 

(g) o o 

(h) o o 



Indication. 



Flagman 

return 
Flagman 

return 
Flagman 

return 
Flagman 

return 
Flagman 

return 
Flagman 

return 
Flagman 

return 
Flagman 

return 



for Track No. 
from the rear, 
for Track No. 
from the rear, 
for Track No. 
from the rear. 
for Track No. 
from the rear. 
for Track No. 
from the front. 
for Track No. 
from the front 
for Track No. 
from the front, 
for Track No. 
from the front. 



F-276. Except as affected by these rules, all Block 
Signal Rules and Train Rules for Double Track remain 
in force. 



STANDARD CODE OF SIGNALS. 385 



DIAGRAMS 

OF 



HAND, FLAG AND LAMP 
SIGNALS. 



NOTE. 



The hand, or a flag, moved the same as the lamp, as 
illustrated in the following diagrams, gives the same 
indication. 



3 86 



STANDARD CODE OF SIGNALS. 



U 

& 

V 




hJD 



T3 

CA 

T 

O 



u 







9 ji«yRK 



fen 

c 
c/a 

i 

a 
o 

c/5 



STANDARD CODE -OF SIGNALS. 



387 







y 



... %^ .- 



1 

o 

PS 

.a -* 

■8 «» 

bJO O 
3 c« 



fe CO 



C 



a S 

C3 -(-1 

a 




13 




rfS 








rt 







^ 




r; 


a 


r 







c3 


<L> 




-G 


G 








>. 


CO 


1* ~| 





c3 


In 


CJ 


U 




03 


<u 
> 


-5 

b« 


be 


c 


r, 





3 


r—< 


£ 




CO 

1 










OQ 



388 STANDARD CODE OF SIGNALS. 



c 





STANDARD CODE OF SIGNALS. 389 



DIAGRAMS 

OF 

TRAIN SIGNALS 



39o 



STANDARD CODE OF SIGNALS. 





e 


C/5 


C/5 


« 


03 


<u 










J3 

0£ 




C 


T3 


>» 


n 


JD 






C/3 






-a 


,£) 


u 


tUD 


Fig. 8 

orwa 


4> 


Cfc- 


-C 


Otfl 


£ 


c 


1 






c 


c 


c 




3 


03 


u 


u 


U 


03 < 


c 


fa < 


04) 


X « 


C 


<u rt 


w 




c 




en 




c/5 




03 




>* 




03 




•a 


< 


>* 


< 


X3 






C3 


-a 


C/5 


u 


fall 


(^ 03 


03 


K ^ 


03 


fcjQ £, 


<U 


fe o 


4-* 


<U-i 


-a 


b£) 


£ 


a 


^ 






c 


a 


3 


03 


I* 


U 




* — 


<L> 


03 


C 


Ui 


C 


X 

CD 


W 





STANDARD CODE OF SIGNALS. 



39i 




e fc- t3 M ~.« 

w u rt 4) i> 

co u -g.S 

!! « Jl* 

W) - £ g pj 

— *■* •- o 

C « « pq 3 • -3 

>* s x; pa SJ a) 

aj t* .S3 o> 

s I s gill 

r « o w -v 



fa « 



M .3 



a a o. rt «-o 

« « ~ Vg.S 

B h « .t! g > 




392 



STANDARD CODE OF SIGNALS. 





>> 




« a 




CO C 




=3 3 


< 


«* CO 


< 


e .2 


rt 


* o 


fcJ) 


O - ! 


•a ss 




ci ^ O 


a 


^H « 6*- 


<L> 


fe o 


o 


W) c2 

c 


G 


•r; co 


M5 


C i—i 




c ^ 


^3 


3 e 


61) 


U wi 


•— * 






<,•» CO 


G 


CD 


a; 


.2 b£ 




b£ C 

a — • 


a 


W 




* 1 




a o 




CO 4-> 




^ CD 




CO 




>. 




•a g> 








o 




. "O 33 




r-H U O 




iH CJ e*- 




fe o 


< 


^ u 




fc « o 


< 


0£ 44— 




c 


(Tt 


a i2 


C/5 


c « 


toll 


-x *co 


q3 

C 


CD 


(U 


.2 bn 




tt) c 


o 


W 





STANDARD CODE OF SIGNALS. 



393 



^ o o 



O -M y 

.Ca OT fax) c . »3 




.5 ^ •« g £ -So 



c 



rt <u 




394 



STANDARD. CODE OF SIGNALS. 




5X3 



~ C3 






a 

"2 

c 
3 
u 

JS 



>> 

X3 



0* 



6-o 

CO S 
03 «* 

|< G 

4_l J-H 

fed) £ 



So 

£: fan 



UJU 

~* - S o 
£^P4 




faj] 






fan 

c 

<u 

S-i 

o 

I 

>. 

-a 
>> 






STANDARD CODE OF SIGNALS. 



395 




o 
S -S3 



4= 
fan 





cii 


u 


M 


- 


aJ 

S-H 


G 


3 


-o 


Uj 


r^ 


c 


c 




aS 


a 


CA 


,c . 


u 


-C 


« o 




h 






d 

C5 


uses the 
per Rule 


B 


u 


C3 


O 




* J 


*-• 


jc ~ 


O 

u 




£ < 


u 
u 
3 




C3 


O +d 


<U 


<-> 


I-, ctf 



a 



39^ 



STANDARD- CODE OF SIGNALS. 



"v> 


. 


£ 




^ 




5 




ft 




V 




V 




<b 




1 




v^ 





1 



hfi 



T 



■S-S 
■S"g . 



° *" ffi. 

cu _S 

.5 ~ c 

g « £ 

° I 

X CO CO 

.5 ** *-* 

M COt CO) 

C ° ° 

W 




STANDARD CODE OF SIGNALS. 



397 







I 



•5 a 

a - 

S 2 s 

o J 43 ■» 
est pQ "t3 -^ 

e .a 



M - 2 



Q 



U CO 

-X u M 

<L> C3 U 

.5 ° 5 

<U O B 

43 =3 

•a .b 3 

g £ a 
OS 






I 



u 



I 



■S| tfg 

£ - Si 

Jiff. 8-T3 

*u< : 

•° 8< § 

S a £> « <u 

> 43 ^ -c 

to u ** tou *-■ 

fell G 

C U CO u 

.B o *- <u 

B • W O 

g « 

O 43 

CO 

S 



bX 



B ~ 
'I § 



J-8 



398 



STANDARD CODE OF SIGNALS. 



<L> bfl 

e 5 



ao "2 





bJD 

fa 



<U bfl 

c c 

s JH 



.o o 



-a 
<u 



a ^ 
**^ 
.5 v 

CO > 

^ I 

W.M 

C3 •" 
0* 



STANDARD CODE OF SIGNALS. 399 



DIAGRAMS 

OF 

FIXED SIGNALS. 



NOTE. 



The colors used for caution signals vary, 
on different roads. 



400 



STANDARD CODE OF SIGNALS. 





Fig. 23. 
Train Order Signal or Telegraphic Block Signal 

Color — Green light at night. Indication — Proceed. 




Fig. 24. 
Train Order Signal or Telegraphic Block Signal 

Color — Red light at night. Indication — Stop. 



STANDARD CODE OF SIGNALS. 



401 



Day 



Nigkt 





Fig. 25. 

Home Signal 

Color — Red light at night. Indication — Stop. 



Day 



Nigkt 





Fig. 26. 
Home Signal 

Color — White light at night. Indication — Clear signal. 



4Q2 STANDARD CODE OF SIGNALS. 



Day 



Night 




Fig. 27. 

Distant Signal 

Color — Green light at night. Indication — Caution. 

Night 





Fig. 28. 
Distant Signal 

Color — White light at night. Indication — Clear signal. 



STANDARD CODE OF SIGNALS. 403 



Night 





Ifc 



^^ - 





Fig. 29. 

Home Signal 

Color — Red light at night. 

Indication — Stop signal, both main and diverging routes blocked. 



Day 



Night 





Fig. 30. 

Home Signal 

Color — Upper arm White light at night. Lower arm Red light at night 
Indication — Main route or high speed route clear. Proceed. Diverg- 
ing route blocked. 



404 STANDARD CODE OF SIGNALS. 



Day 



Night 





Fig. 31. 

Home Signal 

Color — Upper arm Red light at night. Lower arm White light at night. 

Indication — Diverging route clear, proceed at slow speed. Main route 

blocked. 



Day 



Night 




ft™ 



n 



Fig. 32. 
Dwarf Signal 

Color — Red light at night. Indication — Stop. 



STANDARD CODE OF SIGNALS. 405 



Day 



Night 





Fig. 33. 
Dwarf Signal 

Color — White light at night. Indication — Clear signal. 



Day 





Fig. 34. 
Dwarf Signal 

Color — Red light at night. Indication — Stop signal. 



4 o6 STANDARD CODE OF SIGNALS. 



Day 




Night 




Fig. 35. 

Dwarf Signal 

Color — Upper arm White light at night. Lower arm Red light at night. 
Indication — Direct route is clear, proceed. 



Day 





Fig. 36. 

Dwarf Signal 

Color — Upper arm Red light at night. Lower arm White light at night. 
Indication — Diverging route is clear, proceed. 



STANDARD CODE OF SIGNALS. 407 





Color— White. 

Indication — Switch set for main 
route. 



Fig. 37. 

Yard Pot Signals 

Color — Green. 

Indication — Switch set for diverg- 



ing route. 





Fig. 38. 

Interlocking Pot Signals 

Color— White. Color— Red. 

Indication — Derails closed. Indication — Derails open. 



4 o8 STANDARD CODE OF SIGNALS. 



Day 



Night 





Fig. 39. 
Home Disk Signal 

Color — Red light at night. Indication — Stop. 



Day 



Night 





Fig. 40. 
Home Disk Signal 

Color — White light at night. Indication — Clear signal. 



STANDARD CODE OF SIGNALS. 



409 



Day 





Fig. 41. 
Home Disk Signal 
Color — Green light at night. Indication — Clear track. 



INDEX 



A 

Abuse of Boiler 28 

" Engine 256 

Adjusting Petticoat-Pipe 31 

Spring and Magnet 320 

Advantage of Good Fire and Water Supply 10 

Advantages of Oil-Burning Engine 23 

Air Sanders 102-111 

Allen Ported Valve 179 

Allen-Richardson Valve 178 

American Balance Valve 178 

Applying Brushes 307 

Armature 304 

Arrival at Terminal 12 

At Oil Station (Oil-Burning Engine) 23 

Atomizer (Oil-Burning Engine) 17 

Audible Signals 342 

Aurora L. & K. Metallic Piston and Valve-Stem Packing. 154-157 
Aurora L. & K. Metallic Piston and Valve -Stem Packing — 

Construction and Operation 154 

Aurora L. & K. Metallic Piston and Valve-Stem Packing — 

List of Parts, Piston 154 

Aurora L. & K. Metallic Piston and Valve-Stem Packing — 

List of Parts, Valve-Stem 156 

Aurora L. & K. Metallic Piston and Valve -Stem Packing — 

Packing Rings 156 

Aurora L. & K. Metallic Piston and Valve-Stem Packing — 

Valve Stem Packing 156 

B 

Balance Slid^-Valves 177 

Before the Stop 9 

Bent Pin, Main or Side Rod 199 

Bituminous Coal — How to Prepare 9 

Blocking for Broken Valve 186 

the Crosshead 244 

Blower, The 31 

Blow-Off Valve 97-101 

Construction and Operation 97 

Defects 101 

Failure of, to Close 100 

Boiler Checks 64-67 

" How to Reseat 66 

Purpose of 64 



412 INDEX. 

Both Injectors on the Right-Hand Side of Engine 56 

Breakage of Reversing .Arm, Reverse Lever or Reach-Rod. . .193 

Breakdowns , 186-237 

Brick Arches 27 

Broken, Both Bridges 191 

" or Burnt Grates 200 

By-Pass Valves 192 

" or Cracked Steam-Chest 195 

Crosshead 199 

Driving Axles . . .' 237 

Tires 209 

or Truck Cellar 200 

Eccentric, Strap or Blade 198 

Engine Frame * 208 

Truck Axle 201 

Spring or Equalizer 207 

" Wheels 200 

Exhaust Bridge 191 

Forward Driving Spring on Engines .Having Pony 

Truck 229 

Front End 199 

Lap of Valve 186 

Link Saddle Pin, Link Hanger or Lifting Arm 198 

Piston Rod 198 

Valve 189 

Valve-Stem 189 

Pony Truck Axle 202 

" Center Pin, Equalizer or Hanger 204 

Rocker Arm 198 

Side Rod 208 

" Spring, Hanger or Equalizer — Atlantic Type En- 
gines 230 

Spring, Hanger or Equalizer — Eight-Wheel Engine. 214 
Spring, Hanger or Equalizer — Ten-Wheel Engine 

with Overhung Rigging 223 

" Spring, Hanger or Equalizer — Ten-Wheel Engine 

with Underhung Rigging 220 

Tender Truck Journal 206 

• " " " Spring 207 

Wheel f 204 

" Transmission Bar or Hanger . . 194 

Valve-Seat 189 

. " Valve-Stem or Yoke 187 

Brush Holders and Brushes 306 

Bull's Eye Lubricators 125 

By-Pass«and Overpass Valves 265 

C 

Carbon and Electrode 312 

Carbons 324 

Care of Boiler 28 

" Dynamo and Engine 327 



■ INDEX. 413 

Care of Engine When Injectors Fail on the Road 63 

" Steam-Gauge 86 

Causes of Engine Going Lame 243 

" " Injectors Forcing Only Part of the Water Into the 

Boiler 60 

*' Injectors Located on Left-Hand Side of Engine 

Failing to Work 58 

" and Remedies for Defects (Electric Headlight) 328 

Centrifugal Brake 295 

Chicago Three-Feed Lubricator, Bull's Eye Type 132-135 

Chicago Three-Feed Lubricator, Bull's Eye Type — Construc- 
tion and Operation 134 

Chicago Three-Feed Lubricator, Bull's Eye Type — List of 

Parts 132 

Chime Steam Whistle 84 

Circulation of the Boiler 27 

Clinkered or Dirty Fire 11 

Coale Safety-Valve and Muffler 78-80 

" " " " Description and Operation.... 78 

List of Parts 78 

Color of Fire (Oil-Burning Engine) 20 

Communicating Signals 344 

Commutator 306 

and Brush Defects 308 

Compound Locomotives 257-279 

Compression 185 

Condition of Grates 7 

Converting a Coal-Burner to an Oil-Burner 15 

an Injector Into a Heater 61 

Crosby Safety-Valve 80-83 

" " " Description 80 

Directions for Adjusting 83 

Operation 81 

Crown-Bars 25 

Cylinder Packing 245 

Cylinders Loose in the Frame 251 

D 

Defective Rings — Piston Valves 240 

Wheels 256 

Defects of Air Sanders 110 

" Reducing Valves 77 

" Safety-Valves 83 

Definitions (Train Rules) 336 

Derailed Engine 249 

Detroit No. 21 Locomotive Lubricator, Bull's Eye Type. .136-144 
Detroit No. 21 Locomotive Lubricator, Bull's Eye Type — 

Construction 137 

Detroit No. 21 Locomotive Lubricator, Bull's Eye Type — 

Expansion of Oil 143 

Detroit No. 21 Locomotive Lubricator, Bull's Eye Type — 
List of Parts 136 



414 INDEX. 

Detroit No. 21 Locomotive Lubricator, Bull's Eye Type — 

List of Operative Parts . . . 1S8 

Detroit No. 21 Locomotive Lubricator, Bull's Eye Type — 

Operation 139 

Detroit No. 21 Locomotive Lubricator, Bull's Eye Type — 

Testing- for Leaks 142 

Diagrams of Fixed Signals 399-409 

" Hand and Lamp Signals 384-387 

" Train Signals 388-398 

Difference in Pressure of Two or More Safety-Valves on the 

Same Boiler 80 

Direct and Indirect Motion. Valve Gears 183 

Disabled Engine 247 

Disconnected Grates While on the Road 11 

" Tank Valves 63 

Disconnecting (Compounds) 278 

Disturbing Packing on Top of Driving or Truck Boxes 160 

Draft Appliances 29-31 

Drafting Engine • (Oil-Burner) .~ 21 

Driving Box Hangers Unhooked 249 

Boxes and Springs 251 

Duties of Enginemen Before Leaving Terminal 6 

Dynamo 304 

E 

Eccentric Blades 243 

Eccentrics 241-242 

Distinguishing Between Go-Ahead and Back-Up. .241 

" Positions of, on the Journal 241 

Slipping of 242 

Throw of 241 

Effects of Varying Loads on Engine (Turbine) 295 

Elevating Wheels and Frames 252 

Emergency Valve (Oil-Burning Engine) 15 

End Thrust 301 

Engine Drifting (Oil-Burner) 21 

Oil Not to Be Used on Valves or in Steam Cylinders. 161 

Steam Whistle Signals (Three and Four Tracks) 383 

Throwing Fire 249 

Exhaust Clearance 184 

Extension Piston Rods 250 

Extinguishing Fire (Oil-Burning Engine) 21 

F 

Failure of Injectors 58 

Firing After the Start 8 

On Each Side of Fire-Box Alternately 8 

Up (Oil-Burning Engine) 17 

Focus of Lamp 332 

Forcing Fire (Oil-Burning Engine) 22 

Foreign Matter in Steam, Combining or Delivery Tubes (In- 
jectors) 63 



INDEX. 415 

Forms of Train Orders (Double Track) 372-381 

Form B. Directing a Train to Pass or Run Ahead of An- 
other Train 372 

E. Time Orders 373 

F. For Sections • 374 

G. Extra Trains 376 

H. Work Extra 377 

J. Holding- Order 378 

K. Annulling a Schedule or a Section 378 

L. " an Order 379 

M. " Part of an Order 379 

P. Superseding an Order or a Part of an Order 379 

R. Providing for Movement Against the Current of 

Traffic 380 

S. Providing for the Use of a Section of Double 

Track as Single Track 380 

Forms of Train Orders (Single Track) 358-367 

Form A. Fixing Meeting Points for Opposing Trains 358 

" B. Directing a Train to Pass or Run Ahead of An- 
other Train 358 

C. Giving Right to a Train Over an Opposing Train. .359 

E. Time Orders 360 

F. For Sections 361 

G. Extra Trains 363 

H. Work Extra 364 

J. Holding Order 365 

K. Annulling a Schedule or a Section 366 

L. " an Order 366 

M. " Part of an Order 366 

P. Superseding an Order or a Part of an Order 367 

Friction 164 

G 

Gauge-Cocks 88-90 

General Information Relating to Electric Headlight 334 

" Injectors 56 

" Instructions Relating to Safety-Valves 83 

Rules (Standard Code) 335 

Gold Pressure Regulator 75-76 

Construction and Operation 75 

Operating Parts 75 

Gollmar Automatic Bell-Ringer 112-115 

Construction and Operation.. 112 

Defects 114 

Governor 292 

Plungers and Valves 297 

Grades and Location 13 

Guides and Crossheads 253 

H 

Hancock Inspirator 52-55 

** Description 52 

Operating Parts 52 



416 INDEX. 

Hancock Inspirator — Operation 55 

Handhold Plates and Hopper 11 

Hard Grease in Driving Cellars 160 

Honeycombed Flues 11 

How Arc or Light Is Produced 317 

" Draft Is Created 32 

to Focus the Lamp 333 

" " Operate an Injector With the Primer Disconnected.. 62 

" Reseat a Boiler Check 66 

" Thaw Out a Feed or Delivery Pipe Which May Have 

Become Frozen 61 

I 

Injector Defects 59 

Injectors Working Feed-Water of High Temperature 57 

Inside and Outside Admission Valves 182 

Inspection 253 

of Bearings 162 

L 

Lamp (Electric) 312 

Lap and Lead 182 

Large Grate Surface 13 

Laws of Combustion 12 

Leach "A" and *'E" Single and Double Sanders 102-111 

" Single and Double Sanders, Construction 102 

" Operation 105 

"E" Double Sander 108 

Leaking or Bursted Flues 248 

Leaks and Blows 238-240 

in the Fire-Box 27 

Leaky Exhaust or Nozzle Joints 246 

Steam Pipes 246 

Throttle Valve or Dry Pipe 246 

Leaving Stations (Oil-Burning Engine) 20 

Light Failures (Electric) 326 

Trains (Compounds) 279 

Locating Broken Valve, Valve-Stem or Yoke 186 

Defective Cylinder Packing 240 

Valve Blows 239 

Locomotive Boiler 24-28 

Engineering 244-256 

Fire-Box 24 

Firing 1-23 

Injectors 33-63 

Lubricators 116-150 

Hints on the Care of 145 

Steam Gauge .- 86-87 

Care of 86 

Defects 86 

" Operation 86 

Whistle 84 



INDEX. 417 

Lost Motion Between Engine and Tender 254 

Lubrication 158-161 

BE 

Main Throttle Packing 245 

Wires and Their Connections 310 

Mason Reducing Valve 70-72 

" " Construction and Operation .-. 70 

Operating Parts 70 

Movement of Trains (Double Track) 369 

" . (Single " ) 346 

Moving Engine Off the Center 256 

N 

Nathan "88" Monitor Injector — Lever Movement 37-39 

List of Parts 37 
" " " " Operation... 37 

Improved Non-Lifting Injector — Type "M" 46-49 

Improved Non-Lifting Injector — Type "M" — Descrip- 
tion 46 

Improved Non-Lifting Injector — Type "M" — List of 

Parts 46 

Improved Non-Lifting Injector — Type "M" — Opera- 
tion 49 

Monitor Injector — Screw Motion 40-42 

List of Parts 40 

" Operation 40 

Reflex Water-Gauge 94-96 

" " " " Description and Operation 94 

Simplex Injector • 43-45 

Defects 45 

Description 43 

List of Parts 43 

Triple Sight Feed "Bull's Eye" Lubricator 125-131 

Triple Sight Feed "Bull's Eye" Lubricator — Con- 
struction and Operation 127 

Triple Sight Feed "Bull's Eye" Lubricator — How to 

Clean 13D 

Triple Sight Feed "Bull's Eye" Lubricator — List of 

Parts 125 

Triple Sight Feed "Bull's Eye" Lubricator — Replac- 
ing Glasses 131 

Triple Sight Feed Lubricator 116-124 

" Triple Sight Feed Lubricator — Construction and Op- 
eration 116 

Triple Sight Feed Lubricator — Defects 124 

List of Parts 116 

Necessity of Admitting Air to the Fire 12 

O 

Obstructions in the Oil Line (Oil-Burning Engine) 21 

Ohio Injector 50-52 

Description 50 



41S INDEX. 

Ohio Injector — List of Parts 50 

Operation 50 

Oil-Burning Engine 14-23 

Fire-Box 14 

Oil Rings (Turbine Engine) 303 

Oiling the Engine 158 

On a Siding — Care of Fire and Water 10 

Open and Closed Circuits 311 

Opening Cylinder Cocks (Compounds) 279 

Other Duties of Firemen 10 

P 

Piston Valve 180 

and Valve-Stem Packing 151-157 

Placing Coal in the Fire-Box 2 

Pounds and Their Causes 255 

Preparing the Fire 7 

Preventing Breakdowns and Accidents 185 

Priming and Foaming 165 

Principle and Action of an Injector 34 

Principles of Combustion 12 

Production of Electric Spark or Light 306 

Pyle National Electric Headlight 289-334 

R 

Raising Wheels 249 

Red Fire 31 

Refilling the Boiler 248 

Removing Engine and Tender Truck Brasses 250 

Reporting Work on Wheels and Trucks 255 

Reversing Engine at High Speed 250 

Motion of the Engine 244 

Rod Brasses 169-171 

" Keying Main 170 

Side 171 

" Grease Cups •. 160 

Rules Governing the Movement of Trains Against the Cur- 
rent of Traffic on Double Track by Means of Block 

Signals 382 

Rules Governing the Movement of Trains With the Current 
of Traffic on Double Track by Means of Block Signals. . .381 

Rules for Movement by Train Orders (Single Track) 351 

" Single Track 339 

" Three and Four Tracks 382 

S 

Safety-Valves 78-83 

Sanding Flues (Oil-Burning Engine) 22 

Rails (Compounds) 279 

Schenectady Two-Cylinder Type Compound Locomotive. .259-266 
Schenectady Two-Cylinder Type Compound Locomotive — 

Air Pressure Before Starting 264 

Schenectady Two-Cylinder Type Compound Locomotive — 
Breakdowns 264 



INDEX. 419 

Schenectady Two-Cylinder Type Compound Locomotive — 

Drifting 263 

Schenectady Two-Cylinder Type Compound Locomotive — 

Height of Water 263 

Schenectady Two-Cylinder Type Compound Locomotive — 

Intercepting and Reducing "Valve 264 

Schenectady Two-Cylinder Type Compound Locomotive — 

Locating Blows 265 

Schenectady Two-Cylinder Type Compound Locomotive — 

Lubrication 261 

Schenectady Two-Cylinder Type Compound Locomotive — 

Separate Exhaust Valve 263 

Schenectady Two-Cylinder Type Compound Locomotive — 

Starting 263 

Shaping Point of Electrode 327 

Signal Rules (Double Track) 368 

(Single Track) 341 

Siphon Tank Connection 68-69 

How to Clean Strainer on 69 

Siphoning 144 

Slipped Eccentric (Compounds) 278 

Small Contact Brush (Electric) 325 

Smoke, Keeping Down the . . . 9 

Standard Code of Train Rules 335-409 

Starting Engine 254 

(Oil-Burner) 19 

Lubricator 161 

from Terminal 8 

Steam Admission 175 

Buckets (Turbine Engine) 292 

Exhaust 176 

Expansion 184 

Gauge Indications 32 

Generation 32 

Steam-Heat Reducing Valves 70-77 

Steam Passages 292 

" Temperature 32 

Superheated Steam 285-288 

Superiority of Trains (Double Track) 368 

(Single Track) 346 

T 

Taafel Steam-Heat Reducing Valve 73-74 

" " Operating Parts 73 

Operation 73 

Taking Down Main Rod 250 

Time-Tables (Double Track) 368 

" (Single Track) 340 

Top Clutch Spring 322 

Tracing Steam from the Boiler to the Atmosphere 173 

Train Rules and Train Orders (Double Track) 368 

" Signals 344 



420 INDEX. 

Treatment of Hot Bearings 162-163 

Turbine Engine 291 

" " Lubrication 302 

" " Maintenance ' 300 

U 

Use of Sander 256 

" *' Signals 345 

Using Fine or Slack Coal 10 

U. S. Metallic Piston and Valve-Stem Packing 151-153 

U. S. Metallic Piston and Valve-Stem Packing — Construction 
and Operation 152 

U. S. Metallic Piston and Valve-Stem Packing — Follower and 
Preventer 153 

U. S. Metallic Piston and Valve-Stem Packing — Gland and 
Swab Cups 153 

U. S. Metallic Piston and Valve-Stem Packing — List of Piston 
Rod Parts 151 

U. S. Metallic Piston and Valve -Stem Packing — List of Valve- 
Stem Parts 152 

U. S. Metallic Piston and Valve-Stem Packing — Metal Rings. 153 

U. S. Metallic Piston and Valve-Stem Packing — Vibrating 
Cups 153 

V 

Valve Motion 172-184 

Controlling and Operating Parts 172 

Vauclain Type Four-Cylinder Compound Locomotive. .. .271-278 

Vauclain Type Four-Cylinder Compound Locomotive — Engine 

Drifting 272 

Vauclain Type Four-Cylinder Compound Locomotive — Test- 
ing for Blows ' 275 

Visible Signals 341 

W 

Wagon Top Boiler 27 

Walschaert's Valve Gear 280-284 

" Adjusting 282 

" Breakdowns 283 

Washout Plug Blowing Out or Blow-Off Valve Failing to 

Close 247 

Water-Glass Gauge-Cocks 91-96 

" " Construction 91 

How to Clean Out 92 

" Renewing 93 

Water Supply 164-166 

Wedges 167-168 

What is an Injector? 33 

Wheel Base 256 

Whistle or Safety-Valve Blowing Out 248 

Working Compound Engine with Short Cut-Off 279 

Simple for Long Distances (Compounds) 279 

Steam Expansively 254 



m IS 1908 



